天然杀伤细胞在受照射小鼠中的造血调控作用

研究了天然杀伤（ＮＫ）细胞对受致死剂量γ线照射的同系小鼠的造血调控作用。ＡＭＳ／５小鼠经９Ｇｙγ线全身照射后立即经尾静脉注射ＮＫ细胞（５×１０５）,可明显提高受照小鼠３０ｄ活存率,照后８ｄ小鼠骨髓中ＣＦＵ－ＧＭ数量明显高于对照和脾细胞注射组,照射后３０ｄ,ＮＫ细胞注射组活存小鼠的骨髓有核细胞数和ＣＦＵ－ＧＭ数已恢复到正常的７６％─９６％。病理组织学观察显示,输注ＮＫ细胞可使小鼠骨髓、脾脏的组织损伤程度减轻,造血功能增强,表现为造血灶数增多,造血细胞功能活跃,核分裂相增多,且涉及红系、粒系、巨核细胞系造血。ＮＫ细胞可能通过直接与造血干细胞相互作用或改善造血微环境等促进“内源性”造血功能,从而发挥对造血的正调控作用。提示ＮＫ细胞在小鼠造血功能的平衡维持中起重要作用。     

巴西莓和诺尼果粉对C57BL/6J小鼠抗8Gy 剂量辐射的初步研究

目的:比较研究巴西莓果粉Herbal Clean Energy和诺尼果粉Noni GIA通过消除自由基、降低造血细胞凋亡等作用对8Gy大剂量γ线照射后小鼠活存的影响。方法:将C57BL/6J小鼠随机分组、每组雌雄各半,单一果粉在相同灌胃剂量下采用照前灌胃10天、照后灌胃10天以及照前照后灌胃10天三种灌胃方式,首先观察了小鼠在用钴60γ线8Gy致死剂量照后40天活存率;其次在上述相同条件处理下,照后10天对小鼠外周血白细胞计数、CD4+和CD8+淋巴细胞类型、活性氧、骨髓造血细胞凋亡率等分析。结果:生理盐水灌胃组C57BL/6J小鼠受8Gy照射在第18天全部死亡(n=20,下同),死亡率100%,而照前10天灌胃后照射8Gy试验组:巴西莓和诺尼果粉组照后40天活存10/20只,诺尼果粉组第40天活存9/20,巴西莓果粉组第40天活存8/20。在照后灌胃的组别中,诺尼果粉组第40天活存7/20,巴西莓和诺尼果粉组第40天活存4/20只,巴西莓果粉组第40天活存2/20。照射前后单独或联合灌胃两种果粉组外周血白细胞均有升高,而骨髓造血细胞凋亡降低,而且果粉灌胃小鼠外周血Th/Tc比率同对照组相比明显保持于正常值范围。红细胞和血小板数据无明显变化,活性氧含量则呈现无规律表现。结论:巴西莓和诺尼果粉对小鼠抗辐射有预防作用,其细胞学表现为保持造血增殖能力、降低造血细胞凋亡,并维持Th/Tc免疫平衡;显示果粉对保持造血和免疫能力是提高抵抗辐射损伤、提高活存的基础。同时表明,服用巴西莓果粉和诺尼果粉,对人体防止辐射损伤有预防作用。     

造血干细胞的浓集及其功能研究

应用细胞毒剂和非连续密度梯度离必法可以提高小鼠骨髓CFU-S的相对浓度。实验研究表明，骨髓CFU-S是维持正常机体恒定造血或对照射小鼠促进造血恢复的主要细胞成分。在对750拉德γ线照射小鼠注射相同细胞数量的基础上，治疗效果随CFU-S浓集程度的提高而增强。小鼠注射细胞毒剂有影响骨髓CFU-S生理状态的作用，促进处于砌期的CFU-S转入增殖活动。因此，对照射小鼠移植经细胞毒剂或合并非连纹密度梯度离心后的造血干细胞，它将在CFU-S浓集的基础上迸一步提高其促进照射动物造血功能的恢复。     

17α-乙炔-雌三醇-3-环戊醚对小鼠造血干细胞的影响

小鼠灌胃给予辐射防护有效剂量17α-乙炔-雌三醇-3-环戊醚(CEE_3)后10天内,骨髓与脾脏CFU-S都出现一过性抑制,到15天时恢复正常。CEE_3对CFU-S的抑制程度和辐射防护效价与药量有一定关系。切除脾脏或切除肾上腺可减轻CEE_3对造血干细胞的抑制作用。照前切除脾脏可提高照射小鼠骨髓CFU-S含量,但不能提高CEE_3对造血干细胞的防护效果。切除肾上腺对照射小鼠骨髓CFU-S的含量无明显影响,但可明显减低CEE_3对照射小鼠CFU-S的防护效果。对CEE_3等雌激素的辐射防护作用机理进行简短的讨论。     

血小板生成素基因治疗血小板减少症的研究

血小板生成素 (TPO)有望成为特异性治疗血小板减少症的理想药物 .对TPOcDNA离体细胞表达和基因治疗血小板减少症进行了初步尝试 :构建了pcDNA3 TPO高表达质粒 ,基因转移离体细胞 ,检测表达产物rhTPO具有完整的生物学活性 ;pcDNA3 TPO分别注射正常小鼠和血小板减少症小鼠 ,小鼠血浆中检测到rhTPO的表达 ,并且正常小鼠血小板水平上升至 1 .9倍 ,血小板减少症小鼠血小板降低的幅度减小、恢复的速度加快并达到原来值的 1 .8～ 2 .0倍 .该结果为TPO基因治疗血小板减少症提供了实验依据 .     

辐射对造血微环境损伤在放疗中的意义

本文观察了500～3000rad、局部照射后一年内骨髓中CFU-S数的变化动态,同时了解造血微环境支持造血的功能之演变过程。实验发现,500rad照射后局部骨髓中CFU-S含量明显减少,恢复不稳定,同时造血微环境支持造血的功能亦有相类似的波形起伏的损伤修复过程。1000rad局部照射的骨髓中CFU-S有更显著的降低,恢复缓慢而不稳定,造血微环境支持造血的功能早期明显受损,以后虽有修复但不能恢复到正常水平。2000rad以上的X线照射可导致局部骨髓长期再生不良,造血微环境亦见剧烈而持久的功能缺陷,这一结果表明:局部照射后,屏蔽区正常造血干细胞不能在照射部位骨髓中正常种植增殖,其原因与局部造血微环境的功能障碍密切相关。     

减毒沙门氏菌介导的血小板第四因子活性片段的放射保护作用研究

目的:观察减毒沙门氏菌携带的血小板第四因子活性片段PF417 70 的放射保护作用。方法:通过口服途经喂饲小鼠携带PF4活性片段的减毒沙门氏菌,在第 2次喂饲后小鼠接受 70 0cGy全身照射,然后观察PIRES2 EGFP PF417 70 在小鼠体内的表达,并观察小鼠的造血恢复情况。结果:在小鼠的肝脏、脾脏、肾脏、小肠、外周血及骨髓均能检测到GFP的表达和转基因的整合。与对照组比较,实验组小鼠的生存期明显延长,照射后第 7d和 1 4d骨髓有核细胞数、骨髓培养的CFU GM和HPP CFC数量明显增加 (P <0 0 5 )。结论:首次应用减毒沙门氏菌SL32 61为载体来介导PF4活性片段的生物学作用,并证实通过口服途径可以保护小鼠免受放射损伤,并促进放射损伤后小鼠的造血恢复。     

小鼠骨髓造血干细胞(CFU-S、CFU-C)的性质和功能研究

应用细胞速度沉降装置测定了小鼠骨髓 CFU-S 和 CFU-C 的沉降速度,它们分别为4.67和6.13mm/小时。将分离后具有不同 CFU-S 和 CFU-C 浓集程度的组分输入受750拉德γ射线照射的受体小鼠,观察促进照射动物造血恢复的效果。结果证明,富于CFU-S 组分促进造血的潜力远远超过 CFU-C 组分。根据小鼠骨髓 CFU-S 和 CFU-C的细胞大小和生理功能的差别,支持它们是造血干细胞池中两类不同干细胞群的观点。     

罗汉果和熟地增加小鼠造血干细胞的数量和功能

目的：罗汉果和熟地具有增强机体免疫力,延年益寿的作用。本文研究罗汉果和熟地对造血干细胞的影响。方法各组小鼠连续喂养罗汉果或熟地3个月,流式细胞仪测量小鼠的外周血、脾脏和骨髓中免疫细胞和造血干细胞的变化;小鼠用半致死剂量的放射线照射后,连续喂养罗汉果或熟地1个月后,流式细胞仪测量罗汉果或熟地对于免疫细胞和造血干细胞损伤修复的作用。结果分析检测结果发现,与对照组相比,长期喂养罗汉果或熟地的小鼠骨髓和外周血中B细胞的比例降低,粒细胞的比例增加,T细胞没有明显变化;骨髓中造血干细胞的数量增加,尤其是长期造血干细胞数量增加显著。半致死剂量的放射线照射后,罗汉果或熟地喂养1个月,小鼠的粒细胞和T细胞都有明显的改善,造血干细胞的数量明显增加。结论罗汉果或熟地长期服用会增加小鼠造血干细胞的数量和功能,促进了辐射所致的骨髓抑制小鼠的造血干细胞的恢复。     

组胺H2受体拮抗剂对骨髓造血重建的影响

用组胺H_2受体拮抗剂(甲氰咪胍或呋喃硝胺)处理正常和亚致死量γ-射线照射小鼠,探讨正常体内造血和再生骨髓中造血重建与组胺受体的关系。发现非毒性剂量的甲氰咪胍对正常小鼠骨髓多能造血干细胞(CFU-s)无抑制作用,但可抑制小鼠体内粒单系祖细胞(CFU-GM)的生长和亚致死量照射后CFU-s产率的恢复。组胺可能与骨髓的再生有关,组胺H_2受体拮抗剂可抑制骨髓的造血重建。     

HemaMax™, a recombinant human interleukin-12, is a potent mitigator of acute radiation injury in mice and non-human primates

HemaMax, a recombinant human interleukin-12 (IL-12), is under development to address an unmet medical need for effective treatments against acute radiation syndrome due to radiological terrorism or accident when administered at least 24 hours after radiation exposure. This study investigated pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and efficacy of m-HemaMax (recombinant murine IL-12), and HemaMax to increase survival after total body irradiation (TBI) in mice and rhesus monkeys, respectively, with no supportive care. In mice, m-HemaMax at an optimal 20 ng/mouse dose significantly increased percent survival and survival time when administered 24 hours after TBI between 8-9 Gy (p<0.05 Pearson's chi-square test). This survival benefit was accompanied by increases in plasma interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and erythropoietin levels, recovery of femoral bone hematopoiesis characterized with the presence of IL-12 receptor β2 subunit-expressing myeloid progenitors, megakaryocytes, and osteoblasts. Mitigation of jejunal radiation damage was also examined. At allometrically equivalent doses, HemaMax showed similar pharmacokinetics in rhesus monkeys compared to m-HemaMax in mice, but more robustly increased plasma IFN-γ levels. HemaMax also increased plasma erythropoietin, IL-15, IL-18, and neopterin levels. At non-human primate doses pharmacologically equivalent to murine doses, HemaMax (100 ng/Kg and 250 ng/Kg) administered at 24 hours after TBI (6.7 Gy/LD(50/30)) significantly increased percent survival of HemaMax groups compared to vehicle (p<0.05 Pearson's chi-square test). This survival benefit was accompanied by a significantly higher leukocyte (neutrophils and lymphocytes), thrombocyte, and reticulocyte counts during nadir (days 12-14) and significantly less weight loss at day 12 compared to vehicle. These findings indicate successful interspecies dose conversion and provide proof of concept that HemaMax increases survival in irradiated rhesus monkeys by promoting hematopoiesis and recovery of immune functions and possibly gastrointestinal functions, likely through a network of interactions involving dendritic cells, osteoblasts, and soluble factors such as IL-12, IFN-γ, and cytoprotectant erythropoietin.     

HemaMax?, a Recombinant Human Interleukin-12, Is a Potent Mitigator of Acute Radiation Injury in Mice and Non-Human Primates

HemaMax, a recombinant human interleukin-12 (IL-12), is under development to address an unmet medical need for effective treatments against acute radiation syndrome due to radiological terrorism or accident when administered at least 24 hours after radiation exposure. This study investigated pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and efficacy of m-HemaMax (recombinant murine IL-12), and HemaMax to increase survival after total body irradiation (TBI) in mice and rhesus monkeys, respectively, with no supportive care. In mice, m-HemaMax at an optimal 20 ng/mouse dose significantly increased percent survival and survival time when administered 24 hours after TBI between 8–9 Gy (p<0.05 Pearson''s chi-square test). This survival benefit was accompanied by increases in plasma interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and erythropoietin levels, recovery of femoral bone hematopoiesis characterized with the presence of IL-12 receptor β2 subunit–expressing myeloid progenitors, megakaryocytes, and osteoblasts. Mitigation of jejunal radiation damage was also examined. At allometrically equivalent doses, HemaMax showed similar pharmacokinetics in rhesus monkeys compared to m-HemaMax in mice, but more robustly increased plasma IFN-γ levels. HemaMax also increased plasma erythropoietin, IL-15, IL-18, and neopterin levels. At non-human primate doses pharmacologically equivalent to murine doses, HemaMax (100 ng/Kg and 250 ng/Kg) administered at 24 hours after TBI (6.7 Gy/LD_50/30) significantly increased percent survival of HemaMax groups compared to vehicle (p<0.05 Pearson''s chi-square test). This survival benefit was accompanied by a significantly higher leukocyte (neutrophils and lymphocytes), thrombocyte, and reticulocyte counts during nadir (days 12–14) and significantly less weight loss at day 12 compared to vehicle. These findings indicate successful interspecies dose conversion and provide proof of concept that HemaMax increases survival in irradiated rhesus monkeys by promoting hematopoiesis and recovery of immune functions and possibly gastrointestinal functions, likely through a network of interactions involving dendritic cells, osteoblasts, and soluble factors such as IL-12, IFN-γ, and cytoprotectant erythropoietin.     

Biodistribution of the radioprotective drug 35S-labeled 3-amino-2-hydroxypropyl phosphorothioate (WR77913)

3-Amino-2-hydroxypropyl phosphorothioate (WR77913), a less toxic phosphorothioate radioprotector than WR2721, has been labeled with 35S. The biodistribution of a radioprotective dose of 800 mg/kg was determined in C3H mice bearing RIF-1 tumors as a function of time after intraperitoneal injection and was expressed as percentage injected dose/gram (% ID/g). Levels of 35S in the blood peaked 10 min after injection, and radioactivity in most tissues was highest at 15 min. Label in most tissues declined markedly between 15 and 60 min, but in gut, salivary glands, tumor, and brain, the levels of radioactivity remained quite stable over 1 hr. At 30 min after injection the highest levels of labeled drug were found in submandibular salivary glands, gut, and kidney, with the lowest level in brain. Tumors had approximately the same amount of label as blood, muscle, skin, and esophagus. Two principal differences between the distribution of label from WR77913 and WR2721 were defined. Although blood levels of 35S-WR2721 also peaked 10 min after injection, the 10-min blood levels achieved for WR77913 were more than fourfold greater than those attained by WR2721. Maximum levels of WR2721 occurred in most tissues 30 to 60 min after administration of the drug, compared to 15 min for WR77913. The basis for these differences remains to be determined, but these results suggest that the optimum interval between administration of WR77913 and irradiation may be shorter than for WR2721.     

The Toll-Like Receptor 5 Agonist Entolimod Mitigates Lethal Acute Radiation Syndrome in Non-Human Primates

There are currently no approved medical radiation countermeasures (MRC) to reduce the lethality of high-dose total body ionizing irradiation expected in nuclear emergencies. An ideal MRC would be effective even when administered well after radiation exposure and would counteract the effects of irradiation on the hematopoietic system and gastrointestinal tract that contribute to its lethality. Entolimod is a Toll-like receptor 5 agonist with demonstrated radioprotective/mitigative activity in rodents and radioprotective activity in non-human primates. Here, we report data from several exploratory studies conducted in lethally irradiated non-human primates (rhesus macaques) treated with a single intramuscular injection of entolimod (in the absence of intensive individualized supportive care) administered in a mitigative regimen, 1–48 hours after irradiation. Following exposure to LD_50-70/40 of radiation, injection of efficacious doses of entolimod administered as late as 25 hours thereafter reduced the risk of mortality 2-3-fold, providing a statistically significant (P<0.01) absolute survival advantage of 40–60% compared to vehicle treatment. Similar magnitude of survival improvement was also achieved with drug delivered 48 hours after irradiation. Improved survival was accompanied by predominantly significant (P<0.05) effects of entolimod administration on accelerated morphological recovery of hematopoietic and immune system organs, decreased severity and duration of thrombocytopenia, anemia and neutropenia, and increased clonogenic potential of the bone marrow compared to control irradiated animals. Entolimod treatment also led to reduced apoptosis and accelerated crypt regeneration in the gastrointestinal tract. Together, these data indicate that entolimod is a highly promising potential life-saving treatment for victims of radiation disasters.     

Modification of radiation induced damage in mouse intestine by WR-2721

Intestinal protection in mice against radiation injury by WR-2721 (300 mg/kg body wt, i.p., 30 min before irradiation) was studied after whole body gamma irradiation (0.5, 1.5, 3.0, 4.5, or 6.0 Gy). Crypt survival and induction of apoptosis, and abnormal mitoses in crypt cells in the jejunum were studied on day 1, 3 and 7 after irradiation. Irradiation produced a significant decrease in crypt survival, whereas apoptosis and abnormal mitoses showed a significant increase from sham-treated control animals. Maximum changes in all the parameters were observed on day 1 after irradiation and the effect increased linearly with radiation dose. There was recovery at later intervals, which was inversely related to radiation dose. WR-2721 pre-treatment resulted in a significant increase in the number of surviving crypts, whereas the number of apoptotic cells in the crypts showed a significant decrease from respective irradiated controls on day 1 after exposure. The recovery was also faster in WR-2721 pre- treated animals. It is concluded that WR-2721 protects against gastrointestinal death by reducing radiation induced cell death, thereby maintaining a higher number of stem cells in the proliferating compartment.     

Effects of recombinant human interleukin 11 on thrombocytopenia and neutropenia in irradiated rhesus monkeys

The effects of recombinant human interleukin 11 (rhIL11) on thrombocytopenia and neutropenia in irradiated rhesus monkeys were evaluated after administration different doses at different times. Twenty-three rhesus monkeys were exposed to a total-body irradiation (TBI) with a single dose of 3 Gy 60Co gamma rays. Either placebo, rhIL11 at a dose of 30, 60 or 120 microg/kg day(-1) on days 0-13, or rhIL11 at a dose of 60 microg/kg day(-1) on days 13-26 after TBI was administered to the animals. The results showed that the immediate treatment with rhIL11 but not treatment on days 13-26 resulted in much higher platelet nadirs than in the placebo-treated group. The accelerated recovery of platelets to normal levels after TBI was demonstrated in all groups treated with rhIL11, but the effects of rhIL11 were independent of dose. However, rhIL11 treatment could also accelerate the recovery of leukocytes to normal levels. The numbers of colony-forming bone marrow cells (CFU-E, CFU-Mix, CFU-MK and CFU-GM) in all groups treated with rhIL11 were increased 4- to 14-fold relative to those of the placebo group on day 30. We conclude that rhIL11 may directly promote megakaryocyte development and ameliorate myelosuppression in irradiated monkeys.     

WR2721 protection of bone marrow in 131I-labeled antibody therapy.

The use of phosphorothioate radioprotectors such as WR2721 in radioimmunotherapy is attractive because radiation delivered to tumors is usually separated in time from that delivered to the marrow and most normal organs, making protection of tumors of little consequence. However, to be effective radioprotectors must provide continuous protection against radiation of varying dose rates. To evaluate the potential of radioprotectors in radioimmunotherapy we treated normal mice with graded amounts of WR2721 in combination with an LD90/30 (26 MBq) of 131I-labeled antibody. A regimen of 15 doses of WR2721, 200 mg/kg prior to antibody infusion followed by 100 mg/kg ip every 4 h for a total of 72 h, was the maximum tolerated dosage schedule. With this schedule, treatment with radioprotectors failed to prolong survival or delay myelosuppression from the 131I-labeled antibody. In contrast, this regimen of radioprotector provided partial protection from a single treatment of 10 Gy total-body radiation given at 0.2 Gy/min. Protection 30 min after the final dose of WR2721 was greater than 3 h after the 14th dose (60 min prior to the final dose). These results suggest that the potential role of phosphorothioate radioprotectors in a radioimmunotherapy is limited because of the difficulty in achieving continuous protection with nontoxic amounts of drug and possibly because of a limited effect on low-dose-rate radiation.     

Oxygen-dependent protection of radiation lung damage in mice by WR 2721

The modification of early and late radiation damage to the mouse lung by oxygen and WR 2721 has been studied by measurement of breathing rate, lethality, pleural fluid and hydroxyproline content. Protection by hypoxia and sensitization by hyperoxia of early radiation pneumonitis were demonstrated. There was a tendency for the protective effect of WR 2721 to decrease as the breathed oxygen concentration was raised above normal levels. WR 2721 protection of the late damage was higher (PF = 1.6-1.65) than was seen for early pneumonitis (PF = 1.3-1.35) when either breathing rate or lethality were used. Protection factors (PF) gained from measurements of pleural fluid at a year after treatment were similar to those for other endpoints of late damage (PF = 1.7). In contrast, the measurement of fibrosis through determination of lung hydroxyproline at 1 year gave a somewhat lower protection factor for WR 2721. In the same experiments the degree of epilation on the dorsal thorax was scored at 6 weeks. One hundred per cent oxygen gave enhancement (dose enhancement factor (DEF) = 1.2), 9 per cent oxygen reduced damage (DEF less than 0.7) and WR 2721 gave PF values in excess of 1.4 at all oxygen concentrations used. This showed that the radiation response of hair follicles was more sensitive to WR 2721 or to changes of oxygen than the lung. The results presented indicate a competitive interaction between WR 2721 and oxygen for the same injury site causing a shift in the oxygen K curve to higher oxygen concentrations. The validity of applying functional or survival measurements to assess the extent of pulmonary fibrosis is discussed.     

Fifteen years of preclinical and clinical experiences about biotherapy treatment of lesions induced by accidental irradiation and radiotherapy

High dose radiation exposures involving medical treatments or accidental irradiation may lead to extended damage to the irradiated tissue. Alleviation or even eradication of irradiation induced adverse events is therefore crucial. Because developments in cell therapy have brought some hope for the treatment of tissues damages induced by irradiation, the Institute for Radiation and Nuclear Safety contributed to establish the clinical guidelines for the management of accidentally irradiated victims and to provide the best supportive care to patients all over the world. In the past 15 years, we contributed to develop and test cell therapy for protection against radiation side effects in several animal models, and we proposed mechanisms to explain the benefit brought by this new therapeutic approach. We established the proof of concept that mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) migrate to damaged tissues in the nonobese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficiency immunotolerant mice model and in non-human primate after radiation exposure. We showed that the intravenous injection of MSCs sustains hematopoiesis after total body irradiation, improves wound healing after radiodermatitis and protects gut function from irradiation damages. Thanks to a tight collaboration with clinicians from several French hospitals, we report successful treatments of therapeutic/accidental radiation damages in several victims with MSC infusions for hematopoiesis correction, radio-induced burns, gastrointestinal disorders and protection homeostatic functions of gut management after radio-therapy.     

The differential protection by WR2721 of skin versus growing cartilage following irradiation in weanling rats

The potential for radioprotection of growing cartilage by the thiophosphate WR2721 was evaluated in weanling rats using single fractions of irradiation. Protection of acute skin toxicity was monitored simultaneously. Single doses of 600, 1200, 1800, or 2400 cGy were administered to the left tibia of CrL:CD(SD)BR female rats in groups of 12. Identically treated groups were injected with 310 mg/kg WR2721 (2/3 the determined LD50/30) in a concentration of 26 mg/ml intraperitoneally 15 min prior to irradiation. Rats untreated or given WR2721 without radiation served as control groups. Radiographs of the irradiated and unirradiated tibiae for each animal were obtained weekly to the date of sacrifice at 80 days following the initial treatment. Skin toxicity was assessed weekly starting on the second week using Moulder's scale (J.E. Moulder, J.J. Fischer, and A. Casey, Radiology 115, 465-470 (1975]. No significant difference in bone growth as measured by tibial lengths for the WR2721-treated or untreated animals was observed. Skin toxicity including moist desquamation occurred in irradiated limbs and was substantially less in rats treated with WR2721. As opposed to previous work with cysteamine, WR2721 as administered had no significant radioprotective effect on tibial growth in weanling rats but substantially reduced the accompanying skin toxicity.