猪血浆α1-抗胰蛋白酶的分离纯化

α_1-抗胰蛋白酶(α_1-Antitrypsin,简称α_1-AT)是由肝细胞分泌的一种糖蛋白,是存在于动物血液中的一种重要的蛋白酶抑制剂,它能抑制多种丝氨酸类蛋白水解酶,占血浆胰蛋白酶抑制总活力的90％以上。α_1-AT通过调节蛋白水解酶的活性而参与机体的一系列生理活动,如血液凝固、纤维蛋白溶解、组织激肽释放、细胞融合、大分子装配和免疫反应等过程,对防止组织过度损伤有重要作用。目前国际上对人的α_1-AT研究较多,而对猪α_1-AT的研究甚少,仅见     

α1A-肾上腺素受体参与大鼠外周血压的调节

采用大鼠整体灌流模型,同时测定灌流大鼠后肢血管床灌流压和全身平均动脉压,通过动态观察,比较多种α_1-肾上腺素受体(α_1-AR)亚型选择性拮抗剂对两者影响的异同,初步探讨α_1-AR亚型在大鼠整体血压调节中的作用。结果表明:α_1-AR选择性拮抗剂(prazosin组13.5±3.6vs 15.1±4.3,n=11)和α_1-AR亚型选择性拮抗剂(5-mithyl-urapidil组2.4±0.9vs 3.7±2.3,n=12;RS-17053组3.2±1.6vs 4.4±3.3,n=12)均对正常大鼠苯肾上腺素引起后肢血管床升压反应曲线和平均动脉压升压反应曲线的右移程度(dose ratio,Dr)无明显影响,α_1-AR亚型选择性拮抗剂(BMY 7378组1.9±0.9vs 2.2±0.8,n=8)对正常大鼠两者苯肾上腺素加压反应也无差别;自发性高血压大鼠(RS-17053组3.4±0.6vs 4.3±0.9,n=5;BMY 7378组1.7±0.5vs 1.7±0.5,n=8)的反应同正常大鼠相似。提示介导苯肾上腺素引起麻醉大鼠全身动脉加压效应的α_1-AR与引起大鼠后肢血管床收缩的α_1-AR可能是同一种亚型,即α_1-AR。     

α1A-肾上腺素受体参与大鼠外周血压的调节

采用大鼠整体灌流模型, 同时测定灌流大鼠后肢血管床灌流压和全身平均动脉压, 通过动态观察, 比较多种α₁--肾上腺素受体(α₁-AR)亚型选择性拮抗剂对两者影响的异同, 初步探讨α₁-AR亚型在大鼠整体血压调节中的作用. 结果表明: α₁-AR选择性拮抗剂(prazosin组13.5±3.6 vs 15.1±4.3, n = 11)和α_1A-AR亚型选择性拮抗剂(5-methyl-urapidil组2.4±0.9 vs 3.7±2.3, n = 12; RS-17053组3.2±1.6 vs 4.4±3.3, n = 12)均对正常大鼠苯肾上腺素引起后肢血管床升压反应曲线和平均动脉压升压反应曲线的右移程度(dose ratio, Dr)无明显影响, α_1D-AR亚型选择性拮抗剂(BMY 7378组1.9±0.9 vs 2.2±0.8, n = 8)对正常大鼠两者苯肾上腺素加压反应也无差别; 自发性高血压大鼠(RS-17053组3.4±0.6 vs 4.3±0.9, n = 5; BMY 7378组1.7±0.5 vs 1.7±0.5, n = 8)的反应同正常大鼠相似. 提示介导苯肾上腺素引起麻醉大鼠全身动脉加压效应的α₁-AR 与引起大鼠后肢血管床收缩的α_1A-AR可能是同一种亚型, 即α_1A-AR.     

用α1D受体高表达细胞膜色谱研究9种配体的生物亲和作用

为了增加细胞膜色谱法的选择性和特异性, 用受体高表达细胞膜色谱法研究9种α₁-肾上腺素受体配体与α_1D-肾上腺素受体亚型(α_1D-AR)的生物亲和作用. 培养稳定表达α_1D-AR的HEK293细胞株, 制备细胞膜固定相, 应用受体高表达细胞膜色谱法研究不同配体与α_1D-AR的结合情况. 结果表明: 9种不同的α₁-肾上腺素受体配体与大鼠α_1D-AR的亲和顺序为: 哌唑嗪, BMY7378, 酚妥拉明, 羟甲唑啉, 5-甲基乌拉地尔, 去甲肾上腺素, 苯肾上腺素, 甲氧明, RS-17053. 受体高表达细胞膜色谱法是一种特异、可靠的生物亲和色谱方法, 可用于α_1D-AR亚型选择性药物的高效筛选.     

糖尿病合并高血压大鼠心脏α1肾上腺素受体的变化

目的:探讨糖尿病合并高血压大鼠心脏α1肾上腺素受体(α1-AR)及其三种亚型的变化规律和可能的意义。方法:用Wistar雄性大鼠建立糖尿病合并高血压模型,放射配体结合实验和离体左心房收缩功能实验等方法观察心脏α1肾上腺素受体(α1-AR)及其三种亚型的改变。结果:与正常对照大鼠相比,糖尿病合并高血压大鼠心脏α1-AR最大结合容量(Bmax)显著增加(P<0.05),且α1A-AR和α1D-AR均增加。糖尿病合并高血压大鼠左心房α1-AR介导的最大收缩反应较对照组降低41%(P<0.05),pD2值不变。α1-AR亚型选择性拮抗剂5-MU、spiperon和BMY7378拮抗NE正性变力效应的pA2值不变。结论:糖尿病合并高血压大鼠心脏α1-AR介导的最大收缩反应的降低,其主要与受体后信号转导效应减弱有关,其中以α1A-AR和α1D-AR尤为显著。     

α2-肾上腺素受体介导大鼠主动脉收缩的特性

为阐明功能性α2-肾上腺素受体(α2-AR)的特性及其与α2-AR的相互关系,以离体大鼠主动脉为模型,进行收缩功能实验.发现在大鼠主动脉中,α2-AR和α2-AR均可介导其收缩效应并以α1-AR的作用为主.α1-AR可增强α2-AR介导的收缩效应,而α2-AR则对α1-AR介导的收缩效应无影响.在不可逆阻断α1-AR而保留α2-AR的条件下,α2-AR介导的缩血管效应消失,仅在阈值浓度的KCl在下才能显示,且收缩幅度较对照显著降低.结果表明,在离体大鼠主动脉中存在功能性α2-AR,α2-AR的缩血管作用依赖于α1-AR的激动,其最大收缩反应远远小于α1-AR.     

激动剂引起的α1-肾上腺素受体下调及其部分机制

用仓鼠全长α_1B - 肾上腺素受体 (α_1B -AR)cDNA转染人胚胎肾细胞(HEK2 93)得到高效稳定表达α_1B - AR的细胞系 ,在此细胞上观察去甲肾上腺素 (NE)持续刺激该细胞对α_1B -AR表达的影响 .用放射配基结合分析测定受体数量 ,用RNA酶保护分析测定mRNA水平 .结果显示细胞与 1 0 μmol/LNE温育 2～ 2 4h时 ,α_1B -ARmRNA水平与对照组相比显著下降 . 4h时下降到最低点 ,约下降了70 % .温育 2 4h时 ,α_1B - AR数与对照组相比约下降了 6 6 % .用 0 .1 μmol/LCalphostinC预处理细胞 30min后再加NE 4h并未引起α_1B - ARmRNA水平下降 ,而 1 μmol/L佛波酯刺激细胞时也能产生与NE所引起的相似结果 .核失控转录分析显示 1 0 μmol/LNE处理细胞 4h后α_1B -AR的转录速度与对照组相比并无显著差异 .在用放射菌素D阻断新的RNA合成的条件下 ,NE并不能加速α_1B - AR的mRNA降解 .上述结果表明NE引起α_1B -AR下调的同时伴有其mRNA水平下降 ,这种作用是通过激活蛋白激酶C途径实现的 .NE并不改变α_1B -AR基因的转录速度 ,也不直接加速其mRNA降解 ,但可能通过诱导某些RNA及其相应蛋白质的合成而间接降低α_1B - ARmRNA的稳定性 .     

香菜CsEF 1α基因克隆与表达分析

翻译延伸因子EF 1α(elongation factor 1 alpha)是细胞中最丰富的蛋白质之一,其在确保mRNA正确解码以产生细胞蛋白质方面发挥重要作用。该研究采用RT PCR扩增方法克隆香菜CsEF 1α基因序列,利用生物信息学对CsEF 1α基因结构、序列特征及系统进化等进行分析,并采用qPCR探究CsEF 1α基因在香菜不同生长时期和非生物胁迫下的表达模式,为进一步揭示EF 1α基因调控机制的研究奠定基础。结果显示：(1)成功克隆获得香菜CsEF 1α基因序列;CsEF 1α基因包含1个1 344 bp的开放阅读框,编码447个氨基酸,分子式为C₂₂₀₂H₃₅₄₄N₅₉₄O₆₄₄S₂₀,蛋白质分子量为49.29 kD,等电点为9.12;氨基酸序列组成中赖氨酸数量最多(49个,占11.0%),色氨酸数量最少(3个,占0.7%);属碱性蛋白。(2)CsEF 1α蛋白主要由无规则卷曲(36.91%)和α 螺旋(30.43%)构成,定位于细胞质;系统进化树分析显示,CsEF 1α与胡萝卜、野生番茄、青蒿素和非洲菊的亲缘关系较接近;启动子分析包括4种植物生长发育元件、3种激素响应元件和3种胁迫响应元件。(3)qRT PCR结果显示,CsEF 1α基因的表达量随着香菜生长发育时间的延长而升高,并且与转录丰度的变化一致;CsEF 1α基因对4种不同非生物胁迫的响应表达模式有所差异;随着胁迫时间的延长,在盐胁迫下CsEF 1α基因表现出先升高后降低趋势,而在低温、高温和干旱胁迫下表现出先降低再升高的趋势。研究表明,CsEF 1α基因参与了香菜对非生物胁迫的应答,在香菜生长发育和非生物胁迫中具有重要调控作用。     

不同能量CO2点阵激光对博来霉素诱导的小鼠增生性瘢痕的作用及Hedgehog信号通路的影响

目的:探讨不同能量CO_2点阵激光对博莱霉素诱导的小鼠增生性瘢痕模型的作用及其对瘢痕组织中Hedgehog信号通路的影响。方法:于雄性C57BL/6J小鼠背部皮肤注射博来霉素(1 mg/d,4周)制作增生性瘢痕模型,另取4只小鼠背部注射PBS缓冲液作为对照。造模成功之后,随机将小鼠分为瘢痕对照组(模型组),10 mj激光治疗组(10 mj组)和20 mj激光治疗组(20 mj组),每组6只小鼠。10 mj组小鼠给予10 mj激光治疗(共3次,每次间隔2周);20 mj组小鼠给予20 mj激光治疗(共3次,每次间隔2周)。治疗结束后,处死小鼠,取瘢痕全层标本进行病理组织学染色观察(HE、Masson染色)以及α-平滑肌肌动蛋白(α-SMA)、GLi1免疫荧光观察。结果:①我们成功复制出小鼠增生性瘢痕模型;②20 mj CO_2点阵激光治疗可有效修复瘢痕组织,经治疗后皮肤瘢痕程度显著减轻,同时可降低真皮层厚度和减轻瘢痕组织的纤维化程度;③免疫荧光染色结果提示,CO_2点阵激光可显著减少小鼠皮肤增生性瘢痕中α-SMA、GLi1表达。结论:于小鼠的背部皮肤注射博莱霉素可建立增生性瘢痕模型。CO_2点阵激光为治疗增生性瘢一种有效的治疗方式,其作用可能与其对Hedgehog信号通路的抑制有关。     

圣草酚对Aβ25-35诱导的PC12细胞损伤的保护作用及其机制

目的:探讨圣草酚对Aβ_(25-35)诱导的PC12细胞损伤的保护作用及其机制。方法:采用MTT法筛选圣草酚对Aβ_(25-35)诱导的PC12细胞损伤的有效保护浓度,进一步采用流式细胞术检测圣草酚对Aβ_(25-35)诱导的PC12细胞的凋亡率的影响,并通过试剂盒检测圣草酚对Aβ_(25-35)诱导的PC12细胞胆碱能系统受体活性的影响。结果:MTT结果显示2×10~(-3)μmol/L圣草酚可显著促进Aβ2_(25-35)诱导的PC12细胞增殖(P0.05)。流式细胞术结果显示2×10~(-3)μmol/L圣草酚和雌二醇均可以显著抑制Aβ_(25-35)诱导的PC12细胞凋亡(P0.05),提高其乙酰胆碱及乙酰胆碱转移酶活性并且降低乙酰胆碱酯酶的活性(P0.05),且二者的作用相当,差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:圣草酚可能通过提高Ach及ChAT的含量,降低AchE的含量,调节胆碱能系统相关酶的活性,发挥对Aβ_(25-35)诱导的PC12细胞的保护作用。     

Impact of alpha1-adrenoceptor expression on contractile properties of vascular smooth muscle cells

Low-frequency blood pressure oscillations (Mayer waves) are discussed as a marker for sympathetic modulation of vascular tone. However, the factors that determine the frequency response of the vasculature to sympathetic stimuli are not fully understood. Possible mechanisms include functions related to alpha(1)-adrenergic receptors (alpha(1)-AR) and postreceptor processes involved in the vascular contractile response. The purpose of the present study was to examine the hypothesis that expression levels of alpha(1)-AR and their subtype distribution determine velocity and magnitude of alpha(1)-AR-mediated vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) contraction. alpha(1A)-, alpha(1B)-, and alpha(1D)-AR subtypes were transfected into VSMCs from rat aorta and characterized immunocytochemically via confocal microscopy. Functional studies in isolated cells were performed using video microscopy. The alpha(1)-AR agonist phenylephrine produced dose-dependent contractions of VSMCs. All transfected groups were more sensitive to phenylephrine compared with controls. Maximal contraction velocity almost doubled in transfected cells. However, no differences in observed parameters were found between the three transfected groups. Contractile properties in response to membrane depolarization with KCl were similar in all groups. In conclusion, alpha(1)-AR density determines velocity and sensitivity of alpha(1)-AR-mediated contraction in VSMCs. alpha(1)-AR subtype distribution does not appear to influence vasoconstriction to sympathetic stimuli.     

α2—肾上腺素体介导大鼠主动脉收缩的特性

为阐明功能性α2－肾上腺素受体（α2－AR）的特性及其与α1－AR的相互关系,以离体大鼠主动脉为模型,进行收缩功能实验,发现在大鼠主动脉中,α1－AR和α2－AR产可介导其收缩效应并以α1－AR折作用为主,α1－AR可增强α2－AR介导的收缩效应,而α2－AR则对α1－AR介导的收缩效应无影响,在不可逆阻断α1－AR而保留α2－AR的条件下,α2－AR介导的缩血管效应消失,仅在阈值浓度的KCl存在下才能显示,且收缩幅度较对照组显著降低,结果表明,在离体大鼠主体动脉中存在功能性α2－AR,α2－AR的缩血管作用依赖于α1－AR的激动,其最大收缩反应远远小于α1－AR。     

Blood pressure is regulated by an alpha1D-adrenergic receptor/dystrophin signalosome

Hypertension is a cardiovascular disease associated with increased plasma catecholamines, overactivation of the sympathetic nervous system, and increased vascular tone and total peripheral resistance. A key regulator of sympathetic nervous system function is the alpha(1D)-adrenergic receptor (AR), which belongs to the adrenergic family of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Endogenous catecholamines norepinephrine and epinephrine activate alpha(1D)-ARs on vascular smooth muscle to stimulate vasoconstriction, which increases total peripheral resistance and mean arterial pressure. Indeed, alpha(1D)-AR KO mice display a hypotensive phenotype and are resistant to salt-induced hypertension. Unfortunately, little information exists about how this important GPCR functions because of an inability to obtain functional expression in vitro. Here, we identified the dystrophin proteins, syntrophin, dystrobrevin, and utrophin as essential GPCR-interacting proteins for alpha(1D)-ARs. We found that dystrophins complex with alpha(1D)-AR both in vitro and in vivo to ensure proper functional expression. More importantly, we demonstrate that knock-out of multiple syntrophin isoforms results in the complete loss of alpha(1D)-AR function in mouse aortic smooth muscle cells and abrogation of alpha(1D)-AR-mediated increases in blood pressure. Our findings demonstrate that syntrophin and utrophin associate with alpha(1D)-ARs to create a functional signalosome, which is essential for alpha(1D)-AR regulation of vascular tone and blood pressure.     

Alpha 2-Adrenergic stimulation is protective against ischemia-reperfusion-induced ventricular arrhythmias in vivo

We previously reported that alpha(2)-adrenergic receptor (alpha(2)-AR) stimulation in Purkinje fibers in vitro prolongs action potential duration and suppresses beta-adrenergic-induced delayed afterdepolarizations and sustained triggered activities. We examined the effects of alpha(2)-AR stimulation on reperfusion-induced ventricular arrhythmias [ventricular tachycardia/ventricular fibrillation (VT/VF)] in vivo. Arterial blood pressure, heart rate, surface electrocardiogram, and renal sympathetic nerve activities were recorded simultaneously in Sprague-Dawley rats. The incidence of VT/VF was 87.5% for controls, 50% for the beta-blocker group, 72% for the alpha(1)-blocker group, and 12.5% for the alpha(1) + beta-blockers group (unopposed alpha(2)-adrenergic activation). Direct alpha(2)-AR stimulation with UK-14304 also prevented VT/VF. These effects were reversed by the alpha(2)-adrenergic antagonist yohimbine. Increases in renal sympathetic nerve activity were associated with left anterior descending coronary artery ligation and reperfusion (33 +/- 1.5 and 62 +/- 1.7% over baseline, respectively) in controls. Similar patterns were observed among all experimental groups irrespective of the incidence of VT/VF on reperfusion. We conclude that alpha(2)-AR stimulation has a potent antiarrhythmic effect on ischemia-reperfusion-induced VT/VF in vivo and that this effect is not centrally mediated.     

Repeated Stress Exaggerates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammatory Response in the Rat Spleen

Spleen is an immune organ innervated with sympathetic nerves which together with adrenomedullary system control splenic immune functions. However, the mechanism by which prior stress exposure modulates the immune response induced by immunogenic challenge is not sufficiently clarified. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a single (2 h) and repeated (2 h daily for 7 days) immobilization stress (IMO) on the innate immune response in the spleen induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 100 µg/kg). LPS elevated splenic levels of norepinephrine and epinephrine, while prior IMO prevented this response. LPS did not alter de novo production of catecholamines, however, prior IMO attenuated phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase gene expression. Particularly repeated IMO exacerbated LPS-induced down-regulation of α1B- and β1-adrenergic receptors (ARs), while enhanced α2A- and β2-AR mRNAs. Elevated expression of inflammatory mediators (iNOS2, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-10) was observed following LPS and repeated IMO again potentiated this effect. These changes were associated with enhanced Ly6C gene expression, a monocyte marker, and elevated MCP-1, GM-CSF, and CXCL1 mRNAs suggesting an increased recruitment of monocytes and neutrophils into the spleen. Additionally, we observed increased Bax/Bcl-1 mRNA ratio together with reduced B cell numbers in rats exposed to repeated IMO and treated with LPS but not in acutely stressed rats. Altogether, these data indicate that repeated stress via changes in CA levels and specific α- and β-AR subtypes exaggerates the inflammatory response likely by recruiting peripheral monocytes and neutrophils to the spleen, resulting in the induction of apoptosis within this tissue, particularly in B cells. These changes may alter the splenic immune functions with potentially pathological consequences.     

Reactive oxygen species from smooth muscle mitochondria initiate cold-induced constriction of cutaneous arteries

Cold constricts cutaneous blood vessels by selectively increasing the activity of smooth muscle alpha2-adrenoceptors (alpha2-ARs). In mouse tail arteries, alpha2-AR constriction is mediated by alpha2A-ARs at 37 degrees C, whereas the cold-induced augmentation in alpha2-AR activity is mediated entirely by alpha2C-ARs. Cold causes translocation of alpha2C-ARs from the trans-Golgi to the plasma membrane, mediated by cold-induced activation of RhoA and Rho kinase. The present experiments analyzed the mechanisms underlying these responses. Mouse tail arteries were studied in a pressure myograph. Cooling the arteries (28 degrees C) caused a rapid increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) in smooth muscle cells, determined by confocal microscopy of arteries loaded with the ROS-sensitive probes, dichlorodihydrofluorescein or reduced Mitotracker Red. The inhibitor of mitochondrial complex I rotenone (10 micromol/l), the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC; 20 mmol/l), or the cell-permeable mimic of superoxide dismutase MnTMPyP (50 micromol/l) did not affect vasoconstriction to alpha2-AR stimulation (UK-14304) at 37 degrees C but dramatically inhibited the response at 28 degrees C. Indeed, these ROS inhibitors abolished the cold-induced increase in alpha2-AR constrictor activity. NAC (20 mmol/l) or MnTMPyP (50 micromol/l) also abolished the cold-induced activation of RhoA in human cultured vascular smooth muscle cells and the cold-induced mobilization of alpha2C-ARs to the cell surface in human embryonic kidney 293 cells transfected with the receptor. The combined results suggest that cold-induced constriction is mediated by redox signaling in smooth muscle cells, initiated by mitochondrial generation of ROS, which stimulate RhoA/Rho kinase signaling and the subsequent mobilization of alpha2C-ARs to the cell surface. Altered activity of ROS may contribute to cold-induced vasospasm occurring in Raynaud's phenomenon.     

Different response of ANP secretion to adrenoceptor stimulation in renal hypertensive rat atria

Sympathetic nervous system and atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) system play fundamental roles in the regulation of cardiovascular functions. Overactivity of sympathetic nervous system can lead into cardiovascular diseases such as heart failure and hypertension. The present study aimed to define which adrenergic receptors (ARs) affect atrial contractility and ANP release and to determine their modification in renal hypertensive rat atria. An alpha(1)-AR agonist, cirazoline increased ANP release with positive inotropism. These alpha(1)-AR agonist-mediated responses were attenuated by the alpha(1A)-AR antagonist, but not by the alpha(1B)- or alpha(1D)-AR antagonist. An alpha(2)-AR agonist, guanabenz and clonidine increased ANP release with negative inotropism and decreased cAMP level. The order of potency for the increased ANP release was cirazoline>phenylephrine=guanabenz>clonidine. In contrast, a beta-AR agonist, isoproterenol decreased ANP release with positive inotropism and these responses were blocked by the beta(1)-AR antagonist but not by the beta(2)-AR antagonist. The increased cAMP level by isoproterenol was suppressed by pretreatment with both beta(1)- and beta(2)-AR antagonists. In renal hypertensive rat atria, the effects of isoproterenol on atrial contractility, ANP release, and cAMP level were attenuated whereas the effect of cirazoline on ANP release was unaltered. Atrial beta(1)-AR mRNA level but not alpha(1A)-AR mRNA level was decreased in renal hypertensive rats. These findings suggest that alpha(1A)- and beta(1)-AR oppositely regulate atrial ANP release and that atrial beta(1)-AR expression/function is impaired in renal hypertensive rats.     

Commande nerveuse peripherique de l’erection

Local mechanisms causing penile erection and detumescence result from variation in tone of vascular and trabecular smooth muscles and in a lesser part of striated muscles around the crura penis. All these events are neurally mediated. We reviewed human and animal data concerning the functional peripheral neuroanatorny of erection. General organization of peripheral nervous system is recalled. Somatic efferents of the pudendal nerve, originating in the sacral spinal cord, innervate the striated musculature of the perineum. Somatic afferents of the penis are conveyed by the dorsal penile nerve, a branch of the pudendal nerve. Afferent terminations project into the spinal cord, their role is discussed. Parasympathetic pathways are involved in the reflexogenic erections. Sympathetic pathways destinated to the erectile structures are more complex. They are issued from thoracolumbar spinal cord and travel through the hypogastric nerve or the lumbosacral sympathetic chain. Sympathetic fibers originating in the sacral sympathetic chain are present in both pelvic and pudendal nerves. Inhibitory role on the erection of the sympathetic nervous system is well-known, it could be also responsible for psychogenic erections. Parasympathetic and sympathetic fibees are mixed in the pelvic plexus and the cavernous nerves which are described. Relations between the four sets of peripheral nerves (somatic efferents, penile afferents, thoracolumbar sympathetic sacral parasympathetic and sympathetic) are discussed.