Community attitudes to the European bison <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bison bonasus</Emphasis> in areas where its reintroduction is planned and in areas with existing populations in northeastern Poland

The main aim of the study was to assess the attitudes of communities in northeastern Poland to the European bison Bison bonasus. Four forest complexes were analyzed: two sites to which animals will be reintroduced in the near future (Augustowska and Romincka forests) and two sites where European bison subpopulations already exist (Knyszyńska and Borecka forests). We also analyzed the factors affecting these attitudes. The survey was based on direct interviews with respondents, and answers were transformed onto a 7-point Likert scale. The results showed that respondents living in areas where reintroduction is planned had more negative attitudes than those living in the vicinity of forest complexes where European bison already lives. The difference was probably a result of myths about the E. bison and crop damage by wildlife. We conclude that proper management of the European bison may lead to higher societal acceptance levels, especially among farmers. Moreover, management and acceptance of the wisent could also influence attitudes to state forests. Negative attitudes to the E. bison can be minimized by workshops that can clarify underlying issues and increase trust towards conservation authorities. The workshops should be aimed at farmers with larger farms and more towards women than men.     

Conservation implications of the refugee species concept and the European bison: king of the forest or refugee in a marginal habitat?

The concept of refugee species provides a theoretical framework towards increasing the predictive power of the ‘declining population paradigm’ through identifying species which are expected to suffer from a declining population syndrome. Using a simple habitat model as a framework, refugee species are defined as those that can no longer access optimal habitat, but are confined to suboptimal habitats, with consequences of decreased fitness and density, and attendant conservation risks. Refugee species may be difficult to detect in the absence of information on prior habitat use and fitness and their observed ecology will be constrained by the habitat limits forced on them. Identification of refugee species, characterisation of pre‐refugee ecology and the restoration of such species to optimal habitat is critical to their successful conservation. The concept is showcased by addressing the conundrum of a large grazing bovid, the European bison Bison bonasus, being managed as a forest specialist, despite its evolutionary background, dental morphology, neonatal behaviour, diet and microhabitat selection being characteristic of a grazing species inhabiting open, grass‐rich habitats. It is hypothesized that a combination of increasing replacement of open steppe by forest cover after the last postglacial period and increasing human pressure forced bison into forests as a refuge habitat. This process was then reinforced through active management of bison in forests as managers committed themselves to the ‘bison as forest species’ paradigm. A research agenda to test this hypothesis using an experimental approach in the conservation management of European bison by introducing populations into diverse habitat types is suggested.     

Trapping in predator management: catching the profile of trap users in Sweden

Many populations of wildlife, including large- and medium-sized predators are increasing in Europe. Trapping can be one way to reduce negative impacts of predators on human interests, such as game species and threatened species, but there is little knowledge of trap usage and motivation behind it. We used a mail survey in Sweden (n?=?3,886 respondents) to compare predator trappers with hunters who used other methods to kill predators, and with other hunters who did not kill predators, in regard to sociodemographics, beliefs, behaviors, and constraints. During 12 months prior to the survey 19 % of respondents had trapped any small- or medium-sized predator, while 15 % of respondents had trapped and 55 % had hunted (without using traps) red fox (Vulpes vulpes), European badger (Meles meles), or corvid birds. Reducing predator numbers was an important reason for hunting predators with traps. Of predator trappers, 97 % had hunted species that were potentially prey of the targeted predators (e.g., roe deer [Capreolus capreolus], hare [Lepus spp.], and grouse), 94 % believed that there were too many red foxes, badgers, or corvids on their main hunting ground, and 64 % believed it to be very important to reduce predator numbers to benefit other game species. We conclude that the use of traps is widespread among Swedish hunters, and that increasing wildlife populations, increased presence of wildlife in urban areas, and management of invasive species calls for effective management actions, of which trapping can be one.     

Positive sentiment and knowledge increase tolerance towards conservation actions

People generally possess certain basic ideas and values towards biodiversity, influencing their personal evaluation of a conservation situation or action and their attitude towards nature and its conservation. Here, we apply knowledge on human attitudes to an interesting socio-ecological system, the case of mitigating the devastating infectious amphibian disease chytridiomycosis in the Pyrenean Mountains, a touristic region. We conducted a questionnaire survey directly in mountain areas (n = 418) and on the internet (n = 868) to investigate whether attitudes towards amphibians influenced support of five possible conservation actions. We further analyzed whether attitudes were influenced by peoples’ use of the mountains, their socio-economic backgrounds, and their general knowledge of amphibians. Our study shows that all but one conservation measure were well accepted by the public. Importantly, the restrictions people would accept were linked to the attitudes the respondents had towards amphibians and how informed they were regarding the current status of amphibians. Our study highlights the importance of ensuring sufficient education and information for the public and suggests that it is necessary to explore and discuss several conservation options with the public before implementing conservation measures that may not be perceived equally.     

Effects of forest continuity on flying saproxylic beetle assemblages in small woodlots embedded in agricultural landscapes

Ancient forests are of considerable interest for strategies for biodiversity conservation. However, in European forest landscapes fragmented and harvested for a long time forest continuity might be no longer a key driver for flying organisms such as saproxylic beetles. In a study based on paired samples (n = 60 stands, p = 180 traps) of ancient and recent forests, we investigated the effects of forest continuity on saproxylic beetle assemblages in two French regions. Mean species richness was significantly related with deadwood volume in ancient forests, but not in recent forests. This loss of relationship between assemblages and their environment suggests that dispersal limitation is at work, at least for some species. Forest continuity had a significant effect on mean species richness and on the mean number of common species, but not on rare species. Forest continuity had a significant effect on assemblage composition in one out of the four cases tested. In both regions, we identified species associated with either recent or ancient forests. Finally, mean body size of species was significantly smaller in recent forests compared with ancient ones, as was their tree diameter preference, despite a higher volume of large deadwood in recent forests. These results lend support to using forest continuity as a criterion to identify sites of conservation importance, even in highly fragmented landscapes.     

Forest floor plant diversity drives the use of mature spruce forests by European bison

The distribution of large ungulates in space is in large extent driven by the availability of forage, which in temperate forests depends on light availability, and associated plant diversity and cover. We hypothesized that the increased number of GPS fixes of European bison (Bison bonasus L.) in usually avoided spruce forests was an effect of higher plant species richness and cover of the forest floor, which developed owing to increased light availability enhanced by spruce mortality. We carried out 80 forest floor plant surveys combined with tree measurement on plots chosen according to the number of GPS locations of GPS‐collared European bison. The mean plant species richness per plot was higher on intensively visited plots (IV) than rarely visited (RV) plots (30 ± 5.75 (SD) versus. 26 ± 6.19 (SD)). The frequency of 34 plant species was higher on IV plots, and they were mainly herbaceous species (32 species), while a significant part of 13 species with higher frequency on RV plots was woody plants (5 species). The species richness of forbs was higher on IV plots, while other functional groups of plants did not differ. Tree stem density on the IV plots was lower than on the RV plots (17.94 ± 6.73 (SD) versus 22.9 ± 7.67 (SD)), and the mean value of Ellenberg's ecological indicator for light availability for all forest floor plant species was higher on IV plots. European bison visiting mature spruce forests was driven by higher forest floor plant cover and species richness, and high share and species richness of forbs. The two latter features may be translated into higher quality and diversity of forage. In spite of morphological characteristics suggesting that European bison is a species of mixed (mosaic) habitats, it seems to be well adapted to thrive in diverse forests.     

Reconstructing range dynamics and range fragmentation of European bison for the last 8000 years

Aim Understanding what constituted species’ ranges prior to large‐scale human influence, and how past climate and land use change have affected range dynamics, provides conservation planners with important insights into how species may respond to future environmental change. Our aim here was to reconstruct the Holocene range of European bison (Bison bonasus) by combining a time‐calibrated species distribution models (SDM) with a dynamic vegetation model. Location Europe. Method We used European bison occurrences from the Holocene in a maximum entropy model to assess bison range dynamics during the last 8000 years. As predictors, we used bioclimatic variables and vegetation reconstructions from the generalized dynamic vegetation model LPJ‐GUESS. We compared our range maps with maps of farmland and human population expansion to identify the main species range constraints. Results The Holocene distribution of European bison was mainly determined by vegetation patterns, with bison thriving in both broadleaved and coniferous forests, as well as by mean winter temperature. The heartland of European bison was in Central and Eastern Europe, whereas suitable habitat in Western Europe was scarce. While environmentally suitable regions were overall stable, the expansion of settlements and farming severely diminished available habitat. Main conclusions European bison habitat preferences may be wider than previously assumed, and our results suggest that the species had a more eastern and northern distribution than previously reported. Vegetation and climate transformation during the Holocene did not affect the bison’s range substantially. Conversely, human population growth and the spread of farming resulted in drastic bison habitat loss and fragmentation, likely reaching a tipping point during the last 1000 years. Combining SDM and dynamic vegetation models can improve range reconstructions and projections, and thus help to identify resilient conservation strategies for endangered species.     

Movements of European bison (Bison bonasus) beyond the Białowieża Forest (NE Poland): range expansion or partial migrations?

The European bison is the largest terrestrial mammal in Europe. After extinction in the wild at the beginning of the twentieth century, it was re-introduced to Bia?owie?a Forest and other woodlands in Eastern Europe. In this paper, we analysed the movements of European bison beyond the continuous woodlands of the Bia?owie?a Forest (NE Poland) between 1964 and 2010. In total, 1,117 direct observations of bison were collected. The number of males moving out of the forest fluctuated during the study period, whilst the number of females steadily increased. The number of male observations outside of the forest per annum was dependent on the population size and snow depth, whilst the number of cows in mixed groups moving outside of the forest was correlated with the population size only. Males were observed mainly alone (50 % of observations) or in small groups of two to three individuals (25 %); however, distribution of group size differed from those observed in the population. There was a significant difference between the direction of movement of males and females out of the forest—males moved mainly west and southwest, whilst females moved to the north. This was also significantly different from the expected movement direction. The mean distance of bison observations from the forest border was 1.8?±?0.13 km and did not differ significantly between sexes. After 1990, males were observed significantly farther away from the forest (2.2 km) than in the previous years (0.9 km). Most observations (94 % of bulls and 93 % of cows) were up to 5 km from the forest edge. The range of bison in the vicinity of the Bia?owie?a Forest was strictly seasonal. Most observations (78 % in males and 88 % in females) were recorded from November to April. Increasing utilisation of areas beyond the forest habitats may be driven by different factors but most probably it is related to range expansion and the bison's preference for open habitats. The strong seasonal pattern of bison movements indicate that the partial seasonal migrations were initiated in the Bia?owie?a population.     

European Bison as a Refugee Species? Evidence from Isotopic Data on Early Holocene Bison and Other Large Herbivores in Northern Europe

According to the refugee species concept, increasing replacement of open steppe by forest cover after the last glacial period and human pressure had together forced European bison (Bison bonasus)—the largest extant terrestrial mammal of Europe—into forests as a refuge habitat. The consequent decreased fitness and population density led to the gradual extinction of the species. Understanding the pre-refugee ecology of the species may help its conservation management and ensure its long time survival. In view of this, we investigated the abundance of stable isotopes (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N) in radiocarbon dated skeletal remains of European bison and other large herbivores—aurochs (Bos primigenius), moose (Alces alces), and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)—from the Early Holocene of northern Europe to reconstruct their dietary habits and pattern of habitat use in conditions of low human influence. Carbon and nitrogen isotopic compositions in collagen of the ungulate species in northern central Europe during the Early Holocene showed significant differences in the habitat use and the diet of these herbivores. The values of the δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N isotopes reflected the use of open habitats by bison, with their diet intermediate between that of aurochs (grazer) and of moose (browser). Our results show that, despite the partial overlap in carbon and nitrogen isotopic values of some species, Early Holocene large ungulates avoided competition by selection of different habitats or different food sources within similar environments. Although Early Holocene bison and Late Pleistocene steppe bison utilized open habitats, their diets were significantly different, as reflected by their δ¹⁵N values. Additional isotopic analyses show that modern populations of European bison utilize much more forested habitats than Early Holocene bison, which supports the refugee status of the species.     

Using remote sensing data to model European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) occurrence in a highly fragmented landscape in northwestern Spain

We model the occurrence of European wild rabbit in fragmented environments in a mountainous area of northwestern Spain (Gerês–Xurés Biosphere Reserve). We carried out a field survey by sampling the presence/absence of pellets in 237 plots (100?×?100 m) selected at random below an altitude of 800 m. For modelling purposes, we considered eight predictors related to vegetation, topography, human influence and heterogeneity. We obtained vegetation and ecological predictors from land use/land cover maps derived from Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus images (acquired at the same time as the field data) and calculated vegetation indices by using a supervised classification method. We obtained topographical predictors from a Global Digital Elevation Model (GDEM) and used a generalized linear model to describe the occurrence of the European wild rabbit. The overall accuracy of the Landsat-derived map in Baixa Limia was 87.51 %, and the kappa coefficient was 0.85. The most parsimonious model included “grassland and crops”, “mean slope”, “distance to roads”, “urban settlements” and “ecotone scrubland-forest”. Five predictors were consequential, three of them with a positive sign for the presence of the species (scrub, urban settlements and ecotone scrubland-forest) and two with a negative sign (mean slope and distance to roads). The information on habitat requirements of European wild rabbit in the area provides a good framework for determining the habitat requirements of this keystone species in mountainous ecosystems in northwestern Iberian Peninsula.