Effects of selective logging on tree species diversity and composition of Bornean tropical rain forests at different spatial scales

Reduced-impact logging (RIL) is known to be beneficial in biodiversity conservation, but its effects on tree diversity remain unknown. Pattern of tree diversity following disturbance usually varies with spatial scale of sampling (i.e., plot size). We examined the impacts of RIL on species richness and community composition of tree species at different spatial scales, and the scale (plot size) dependency of the two metrics; species richness versus community similarity. One 2-ha and three to four 0.2-ha plots were established in each of primary, RIL, and conventionally logged (CL) forest in Sabah, Malaysia. Species richness (the number of species per unit number of stems) was higher in the RIL than in the CL forest at both scales. The relationship between species richness and logging intensity varied with plot size. Species richness was greater in the RIL than in the primary forest at the 2-ha scale, while it was similar between the two forests at 0.2-ha scale. Similarly, species richness in the CL forest demonstrated a greater value at the 2-ha scale than at the 0.2-ha scale. Greater species richness in the two logged forests at the 2-ha scale is attributable to a greater probability of encountering the species-rich, small patches that are distributed heterogeneously. Community composition of the RIL forest more resembled that of the primary forest than that of the CL forest, regardless of plot size. Accordingly, species richness is a scale-dependent metric, while community similarity is a more robust metric to indicate the response of tree assemblage to anthropogenic disturbance.     

Spatial pattern of diversity in an old-growth temperate forest in Northeastern China

Species diversity has attracted particular attention because of its significance for helping determine present species performance and likely future community composition. The spatial pattern of species diversity (species richness, abundance and Shannon diversity) in Changbai temperate forest in Northeastern China was studied to investigate the present and likely causes for the formation of spatial patterns. To fulfill this goal, three aspects of diversity were addressed: 1) changes in the relationships of the diversity variables, species richness, abundance and Shannon diversity, to sampling area and sampling design. The three diversity variables were found to respond to sampling area in a dissimilar way. Sampling design had no significant effect on the diversity variable-area curves. The power function, which was derived under the assumption that the forest was in equilibrium, did not fit the observed species-area curves, indicating that the Changbai temperate forest was probably not in equilibrium. 2) Variograms, used to examine the spatial structure of species diversity, showed that the spatial structure of species diversity in the Changbai temperate forest was weakly anisotropic. 3) Partitioning the variation of species diversity into spatial and environmental factors indicated that the spatial pattern of the Changbai forest community was unpredictable, probably because there were many undetermined processes controlling its development.     

热带森林树种多度和丰富度空间分布特征研究

用巴拿马50 hm2森林动态监测样地内直径≥1 cm的树种资料,分析了该样地树种多度(个体数)和丰富度(物种数)及其方差和变异系数在6个取样尺度(5 m×5 m,10 m×10 m,20 m×20 m,25 m×25 m,50 m×50 m,100 m×100 m)的变化规律.结果显示:(1)由于多度的可加性,不同取样尺度在样地内树种多度的变化表现出一致性;随取样尺度的增加,多度方差呈线性增加,而变异系数呈线性减小.(2)丰富度随取样尺度的变化较为复杂,随取样尺度的增加,丰富度方差呈非线性变化,在取样尺度为25 m×25 m时方差最大;变异系数随取样尺度的增加而呈线性减小.研究表明,大尺度的多度值可以由小尺度的多度值通过外推法估计,而丰富度却不能,在生物多样性的保护和管理中不能简单地从一个取样尺度的生物丰富度推测另一个取样尺度丰富度.     

Grazing and an invasive grass confound spatial pattern of exotic and native grassland plant species richness

Previous work has shown exotic and native plant species richness are negatively correlated at fine spatial scales and positively correlated at broad spatial scales. Grazing and invasive plant species can influence plant species richness, but the effects of these disturbances across spatial scales remain untested. We collected species richness data for both native and exotic plants from five spatial scales (0.5–3000 m²) in a nested, modified Whittaker plot design from severely grazed and ungrazed North American tallgrass prairie. We also recorded the abundance of an abundant invasive grass, tall fescue (Schedonorus phoenix (Scop.) Holub), at the 0.5-m² scale. We used linear mixed-effect regression to test relationships between plant species richness, tall fescue abundance, and grazing history at five spatial scales. At no scale was exotic and native species richness linearly related, but exotic species richness at all scales was greater in grazed tracts than ungrazed tracts. Native species richness declined with increasing tall fescue abundance at all five spatial scales, but exotic species richness increased with tall fescue abundance at all but the broadest spatial scales. Severe grazing did not reduce native species richness at any spatial scale. We posit that invasion of tall fescue in this working landscape of originally native grassland plants modifies species richness-spatial scale relationships observed in less disturbed systems. Tall fescue invasion constitutes a unique biotic effect on plant species richness at broad spatial scales.     

Plant species diversity and environmental heterogeneity: spatial scale and competing hypotheses

Questions: What is the observed relationship between plant species diversity and spatial environmental heterogeneity? Does the relationship scale predictably with sample plot size? What are the relative contributions to diversity patterns of variables linked to productivity or available energy compared to those corresponding to spatial heterogeneity? Methods: Observational and experimental studies that quantified relationships between plant species richness and within‐sample spatial environmental heterogeneity were reviewed. Effect size in experimental studies was quantified as the standardized mean difference between control (homogeneous) and heterogeneous treatments. For observational studies, effect sizes in individual studies were examined graphically across a gradient of plot size (focal scale). Relative contributions of variables representing spatial heterogeneity were compared to those representing available energy using a response ratio. Results: Forty‐one observational and 11 experimental studies quantified plant species diversity and spatial environmental heterogeneity. Observational studies reported positive species diversity‐spatial heterogeneity correlations at all points across a plot size gradient from ～1.0 × 10^?1 to ～1.0 × 10¹¹ m², although many studies reported spatial heterogeneity variables with no significant relationships to species diversity. The cross‐study effect size in experimental studies was not significantly different from zero. Available energy variables explained consistently more of the variance in species richness than spatial heterogeneity variables, especially at the smallest and largest plot sizes. Main conclusions: Species diversity was not related to spatial heterogeneity in a way predictable by plot size. Positive heterogeneity‐diversity relationships were common, confirming the importance of niche differentiation in species diversity patterns, but future studies examining a range of spatial scales in the same system are required to determine the role of dispersal and available energy in these patterns.     

Epiphytic macrolichens in managed and natural forest landscapes: a comparison at two spatial scales

To maintain biodiversity in managed forests we must understand how forestry affects various organisms across a wide range of spatial and temporal scales. We compared landscape structure, forest structure, and species richness and abundance of epiphytic macrolichens in three pairs of natural and managed boreal forest landscapes. Study landscapes (2500 ha) were located within and adjacent to three of the largest forest reserves in Sweden (Reivo, Muddus, Jelka). The structural heterogeneity within landscapes was higher in managed forests whereas within-stand structural heterogeneity was higher in natural landscapes. Species richness of macrolichens at the stand level (sample plot) was 23% higher in natural forests but there was no difference at the landscape level. Most (86%) of the common species were more frequent in natural landscapes. Lichen abundance (estimated by lichen litter) was two times higher in natural than in managed landscapes, 5.6 and 2.7 kg ha^-1 forest (pooled data), respectively. Both species richness and abundance were negatively related to cutting level (number and basal area of cut stumps) and positively related to stand variables (stand age, stem density and basal area). Lichen-rich forest stands were more numerous but covered a smaller area and were more isolated in managed landscapes. This may in turn have important consequences for dispersal of lichen propagules to second-growth forests. In conclusion, the results suggest that effects of forestry on epiphyte diversity and abundance are strongly related to the spatial scale (stand or landscape). To enhance biodiversity in managed forests we must increase structural heterogeneity at the whole range of spatial and temporal scales.     

Landscape heterogeneity at multiple spatial scales enhances spider species richness in an agricultural landscape

Landscape supplementation, which enhances densities of organisms by combination of different landscape elements, is likely common in heterogeneous landscapes, but its prevalence and effects on species richness have been little explored. Using grassland-dwelling spiders in an agricultural landscape, we postulated that richness and abundances of major constituent species are both highest in intermediate mixtures of forests and paddy fields, and that this effect derives from multi-scale landscape heterogeneity. We collected spiders in 35 grasslands in an agricultural landscape in Japan and determined how species richness and abundances of major species related to local and landscape factors across different spatial scales. We used a generalized linear model to fit data, created all possible combinations of variables at 15 spatial scales, and then explored the best models using Akaike's information criterion. Species richness showed a hump-shaped pattern in relation to surrounding forest cover, and the spatial scale determining this relationship was a 300–500-m radius around the study sites. Local variables were of minor importance for species richness. Abundances of major species also exhibited a hump-shaped pattern when plotted against forest cover. Thus, a combination of paddy fields and forests is important for enhancement of grassland spider species richness and abundance, suggesting habitat supplementation. The effective spatial scales determining abundances varied, ranging from 200 to >1000 m, probably representing different dispersal abilities. Landscape compositional heterogeneity at multiple spatial scales may be thus crucial for the maintenance of species diversity.     

Multi-scale analysis on species diversity within a 40-ha old-growth temperate forest

In order to better explore the maintenance mechanisms of biodiversity,data collected from a 40-ha undisturbed Pinus forest were applied to the Individual SpecieseArea Relationship model (ISAR) to determine distribution patterns for species richness.The ecological processes influencing species abundance distribution patterns were assessed by applying the same data set to five models:a LogNormal Model (LNM),a Broken Stick Model (BSM),a Zipf Model (ZM),a Niche Preemption Model (NPM),and a Neutral Model (NM).Each of the five models was used at six different sampling scales (10 m×10 m,20 m×20 m,40 m×40 m,60 m×60 m,80 m×80 m,and 100 m×100 m).Model outputs showed that:(1) Accumulators and neutral species strongly influenced species diversity,but the relative importance of the two types of species varied across spatial scales.(2) Distribution patterns of species abundance were best explained by the NPM at small scales (10 me20 m),whereas the NM was the best fit model at large spatial scales.(3) Species richness and abundance distribution patterns appeared to be driven by similar ecological processes.At small scales,the niche theory could be applied to describe species richness and abundance,while at larger scales the neutral theory was more applicable.     

Scales of spatiotemporal variability in macroinvertebrate abundance and diversity in monsoonal streams: detecting environmental change

1. We quantified spatial and temporal variability in benthic macroinvertebrate species richness, diversity and abundance in six unpolluted streams in monsoonal Hong Kong at different scales using a nested sampling design. The spatial scales were regions, stream sites and stream sections within sites; temporal scales were years (1997–99), seasons (dry versus wet seasons) and days within seasons. 2. Spatiotemporal variability in total abundance and species richness was greater during the wet season, especially at small scales, and tended to obscure site‐ and region‐scale differences, which were more conspicuous during the dry season. Total abundance and richness were greater in the dry season, reflecting the effects of spate‐induced disturbance during the wet season. Species diversity showed little variation at the seasonal scale, but variability at the site scale was apparent during both seasons. 3. Despite marked variations in monsoonal rainfall, inter‐year differences in macroinvertebrate richness and abundance at the site scale during the wet season were minor. Inter‐year differences were only evident during the dry season when streams were at base flow and biotic interactions may structure assemblages. 4. Small‐scale patchiness within riffles was the dominant spatial scale of variation in macroinvertebrate richness, total abundance and densities of common species, although site or region was important for some species. The proportion of total variance contributed by small‐scale spatial variability increased during the dry season, whereas temporal variability associated with days was greater during the wet season. 5. The observed patterns of spatiotemporal variation have implications for detection of environmental change or biomonitoring using macroinvertebrate indicators in streams in monsoonal regions. Sampling should be confined to the dry season or, in cases where more resources are available, make use of data from both dry and wet seasons. Sampling in more than one dry season is required to avoid the potentially confounding effects of inter‐year variation, although variability at that scale was relatively small.     

Fine‐scale forest variability and biodiversity in the boreal mixedwood forest

Local spatial variation in species distributions is driven by a mix of abiotic and biotic factors, and understanding such hierarchical variation is important for conservation of biodiversity across larger scales. We sought to understand how variation in species composition of understory vascular plants, spiders, and carabid beetles is associated with concomitant spatial variation in forest structure on a 1‐ha permanent plot in a never‐cut mixedwood forest in central Alberta (Canada). Using correlations among dendrograms produced by cluster analysis we associated data about mapped distribution of all living and dead stems > 1 cm diameter at breast height with distributions of the three focal taxa sampled from regular grids across the plot. Variation in each of these species assemblages were significantly associated with several forest structure variables at various spatial scales, but the scale of the associations varied among assemblages. Variation in species richness and abundance was explained mostly by changes in basal area of trees across the plot; however, other variables (e.g. snag density and tree density) were also important, depending on assemblage. We conclude that fine‐scale habitat variation is important in structuring spatial distribution of the species of the forest floor, even within a relatively homogeneous natural forest. Thus, assessments that ignore within‐stand heterogeneity and management that ignores its maintenance will have limited utility as conservation measures for these taxa, which are major elements of forest biodiversity.     

Spatial heterogeneity and plant species richness at different spatial scales under rabbit grazing

Herbivores influence spatial heterogeneity in soil resources and vegetation in ecosystems. Despite increasing recognition that spatial heterogeneity can drive species richness at different spatial scales, few studies have quantified the effect of grazing on spatial heterogeneity and species richness simultaneously. Here we document both these variables in a rabbit-grazed grassland. We measured mean values and spatial patterns of grazing intensity, rabbit droppings, plant height, plant biomass, soil water content, ammonia and nitrate in sites grazed by rabbits and in matched, ungrazed exclosures in a grassland in southern England. Plant species richness was recorded at spatial scales ranging between 0.0001 and 150 m(2). Grazing reduced plant height and plant biomass but increased levels of ammonia and nitrate in the soil. Spatial statistics revealed that rabbit-grazed sites consisted of a mixture of heavily grazed patches with low vegetation and nutrient-rich soils (lawns) surrounded by patches of high vegetation with nutrient-poor soils (tussocks). The mean patch size (range) in the grazed controls was 2.1 +/- 0.3 m for vegetation height, 3.8 +/- 1.8 m for soil water content and 2.8 +/- 0.9 m for ammonia. This is in line with the patch sizes of grazing (2.4 +/- 0.5 m) and dropping deposition (3.7 +/- 0.6 m) by rabbits. In contrast, patchiness in the ungrazed exclosures had a larger patch size and was not present for all variables. Rabbit grazing increased plant species richness at all spatial scales. Species richness was negatively correlated with plant height, but positively correlated to the coefficient of variation of plant height at all plot sizes. Species richness in large plots (<25 m(2)) was also correlated to patch size. This study indicates that the abundance of strong competitors and the nutrient availability in the soil, as well as the heterogeneity and spatial pattern of these factors may influence species richness, but the importance of these factors can differ across spatial scales.     

Urbanization drives cross‐taxon declines in abundance and diversity at multiple spatial scales

The increasing urbanization process is hypothesized to drastically alter (semi‐)natural environments with a concomitant major decline in species abundance and diversity. Yet, studies on this effect of urbanization, and the spatial scale at which it acts, are at present inconclusive due to the large heterogeneity in taxonomic groups and spatial scales at which this relationship has been investigated among studies. Comprehensive studies analysing this relationship across multiple animal groups and at multiple spatial scales are rare, hampering the assessment of how biodiversity generally responds to urbanization. We studied aquatic (cladocerans), limno‐terrestrial (bdelloid rotifers) and terrestrial (butterflies, ground beetles, ground‐ and web spiders, macro‐moths, orthopterans and snails) invertebrate groups using a hierarchical spatial design, wherein three local‐scale (200 m × 200 m) urbanization levels were repeatedly sampled across three landscape‐scale (3 km × 3 km) urbanization levels. We tested for local and landscape urbanization effects on abundance and species richness of each group, whereby total richness was partitioned into the average richness of local communities and the richness due to variation among local communities. Abundances of the terrestrial active dispersers declined in response to local urbanization, with reductions up to 85% for butterflies, while passive dispersers did not show any clear trend. Species richness also declined with increasing levels of urbanization, but responses were highly heterogeneous among the different groups with respect to the richness component and the spatial scale at which urbanization impacts richness. Depending on the group, species richness declined due to biotic homogenization and/or local species loss. This resulted in an overall decrease in total richness across groups in urban areas. These results provide strong support to the general negative impact of urbanization on abundance and species richness within habitat patches and highlight the importance of considering multiple spatial scales and taxa to assess the impacts of urbanization on biodiversity.     

Scale specific determinants of tree diversity in an old growth temperate forest in China

The major processes generating pattern in plant community composition depend upon the spatial scale and resolution of observation, therefore understanding the role played by spatial scale on species patterns is of major concern. In this study, we investigate how well environmental (topography and soil variables) and spatial variables explain variation in species composition in a 25-ha temperate forest in northeastern China. We used new variation partitioning approaches to discover the spatial scale (using multi-scale spatial PCNM variables) at which environmental heterogeneity and other spatially structured processes influence tree community composition. We also test the effect of changing grain of the study (i.e. quadrat size) on the variation partitioning results. Our results indicate that (1) species composition in the Changbai mixed broadleaf-conifer forest was controlled mainly by spatially structured soil variation at broad scales, while at finer scales most of the explained variation was of a spatial nature, pointing to the importance of biotic processes. (2) These results held at all sampling grains. However, reducing quadrat size progressively reduced both spatially and environmentally explained variance. This probably partly reflects increasing stochasticity in species abundances, and the smaller proportion of quadrats occupied by each species, when quadrat size is reduced. The results suggest that environmental heterogeneity (i.e. niche processes) and other biotic processes such as dispersal work together, but at different spatial scales, to build up diversity patterns.     

Plant biodiversity inventory and conservation of two tropical dry evergreen forests on the Coromandel coast, south India

Species diversity, population structure, abundance and dispersion patterns of all woody plants 10cm gbh were inventoried in two 1-ha plots of tropical dry evergreen (sacred grove or temple) forests at Kuzhanthaikuppam (KK) and Thirumanikkuzhi (TM) on the Coromandel coast of south India. Site KK is a stunted forest (average tree height ca 6 m) and TM a tall forest (average tree height ca 10 m). A total of 54 species (in 47 genera and 31 families) were recorded. Species richness and stand density were 42 and 38 species and 1367 and 974 individuals ha–1 respectively for the sites KK and TM. About 50% of the total species were common to both the sites. Site TM is twofold more voluminous (basal area 29.48 m2 ha–1) than KK (basal area 15.44 m2 ha–1). Nearly one third of the individuals are multi-stemmed in the low-statured site KK whereas one fourth of the tree density is multi-stemmed in TM. Species abundance pattern varied between the two sites. The abundance of three species in KK and two species in TM is pronounced. Memecylon umbellatum, the most abundant species contributing to one third of total stand density in KK, is least represented in TM. Species richness, density and diversity indices decreased with increasing girth threshold. Most species exhibited clumped dispersion of individuals both at 0.25 and 1-ha scales. Population structure for girth frequency is an expanding one for both the sites, except for basal area distribution in KK. Variations in plant diversity and abundance are related to site attributes and human impacts. In the light of habitat uniqueness, species richness and sacred grove status, the need for conservation is emphasized.     

Habitat selection of breeding riparian birds in an urban environment: untangling the relative importance of biophysical elements and spatial scale

Aim Urbanization is a leading threat to global biodiversity, yet little is known about how the spatial arrangement and composition of biophysical elements – buildings and vegetation – within a metropolitan area influence habitat selection. Here, we ask: what is the relative importance of the structure and composition of these elements on bird species across multiple spatial scales? Location The temperate metropolitan area of Cincinnati, Ohio, USA. Methods We surveyed breeding birds on 71 plots along an urban gradient. We modelled relative density for 48 bird species in relation to local woody vegetation composition and structure and to tree cover, grass cover and building density within 50–1000 m of each plot. We used an information‐theoretic approach to compare models and variables. Results At the proximate scale, native tree and understory stem frequency were the most important vegetation variables explaining bird distributions. Species’ responses to landscape biophysical features and spatial scales varied. Most native species responded positively to vegetation measures and negatively to building density. Models combining both local vegetation and landscape information represented best or competitive models for the majority of species, while models containing only local vegetation characteristics were rarely competitive. Smaller spatial scales (≤ 500 m) were most important for 36 species, and eight species had best models at larger scales (> 500 m); however, several species had competitive models across multiple scales. Main conclusions Habitat selection by birds within the urban matrix is the result of a combination of factors operating at both proximate and broader spatial scales. Efforts to manage and design urban areas to benefit native birds require both fine‐scale (e.g., individual landowners and landscape design) and larger landscape actions (e.g., regional comprehensive planning).     

Plant biodiversity and conservation of tropical semi-evergreen forest in the Shervarayan hills of Eastern Ghats, India

Species diversity, density, population structure and dispersion patterns of all trees and lianas (30cm gbh) were inventoried in a tropical semi-evergreen forest in the Shervarayan hills of Eastern Ghats, south India. Such data are necessary for ecosystem conservation of the under-studied Eastern Ghats, as extensive forests here have already been converted to coffee and orange plantations and the landscape changed due to aluminium ore mining and quarrying. Four 1-ha plots were established in Sanyasimalai (SM) reserve forest of the Shervarayan hills, one plot (SM1) located close to mining and quarrying area, two other contiguous plots (SM2 and SM3) located in selective felling area and the fourth (SM4) in a relatively undisturbed forest. These are 1 to 4km apart in the same semi-evergreen forest tract. In the four study plots a total of 3260 stems (mean density 815ha–1) covering 80 species in 71 genera and 44 plant families were recorded. Species richness was greatest in the undisturbed plot SM4 (50), while lowest (33) in the selectively felled site SM2. The forest stand (SM4) was also denser (986 stemsha–1) and more voluminous (basal area 44.3m2ha–1 as compared with the site mean of 35m2ha–1) than the other plots. Four trees, Chionanthus paniculata, Syzygium cumini, Canthium dicoccum and Ligustrum perrottetii dominated the stand, collectively contributing to >50% of the total density. Species richness and stand density decreased with increasing tree girths. The forest stand contained a growing population, but there was considerable variation in basal area distribution between the plots. Trends in species population structure varied, particularly for selective-felled species. Most species exhibited clumped dispersion of individuals both at 0.25ha and 1-ha scales. Variation in plant diversity and abundance are related to site attributes and human impacts.     

Forested Buffer Strips and Breeding Bird Communities in Southeast Alaska

Abstract: Forested buffer strips are used to mitigate fragmentation and habitat loss and are a common feature in management of riparian landscapes. Low-elevation, old-growth coastal forests are a rare riparian habitat that can benefit from similar conservation measures. We evaluated the effectiveness of postlogging, forested buffer strips for forest-dwelling birds in the coastal temperate rainforest of southeast Alaska, USA. Our objective was to compare bird composition and density among forested buffer strips of differing widths and controls at the stand and landscape scales. We applied a 2-stage sampling design stratified by forested buffer width and randomly selected 24 managed and 18 control sites to sample over 2 breeding seasons. We estimated abundance of birds using the paired-observer, variable-circular plot method. We modeled combined effects of buffer width and vegetation and landscape characteristics on bird density at 2 spatial scales. Species richness and diversity were greatest in the narrowest buffers, but species composition in the largest buffers (≥400 m) was most similar to that in control blocks. Abundance of 3 of 10 common species differed across forested buffer treatments and controls. Densities of red-breasted sapsucker (Sphyrapicus ruber) and Pacific-slope flycatcher (Empidonax difficilis) were positively related to buffer width, whereas density of ruby-crowned kinglet (Regulus calendula) was negatively associated with buffer width. Parameter estimates for buffer width effects at both spatial scales were similar within species. We found few habitat and landscape variables that clearly affected density of our focal species, and among species no predictor variables affected density in a similar fashion. We recommend retaining forested buffers ≥400 m to support composition and abundance of forest-dwelling birds, particularly those species that rely on interior forest conditions. (JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 72(3):674-681; 2008)     

Application of species richness estimators for the assessment of fungal diversity

Species richness and distribution patterns of wood-inhabiting fungi and mycetozoans (slime moulds) were investigated in the canopy of a Central European temperate mixed deciduous forest. Species richness was described with diversity indices and species-accumulation curves. Nonmetrical multidimensional scaling was used to assess fungal species composition on different tree species. Different species richness estimators were used to extrapolate species richness beyond our own data. The reliability of the abundance-based coverage estimator, Chao, Jackknife and other estimators of species richness was evaluated for mycological surveys. While the species-accumulation curve of mycetozoans came close to saturation, that of wood-inhabiting fungi was continuously rising. The Chao 2 richness estimator was considered most appropriate to predict the number of species at the investigation site if sampling were continued. Gray's predictor of species richness should be used if statements of the number of species in larger areas are required. Multivariate analysis revealed the importance of different tree species for the conservation and maintenance of fungal diversity within forests, because each tree species possessed a characteristic fungal community. The described mathematical approaches of estimating species richness possess great potential to address fungal diversity on a regional, national, and global scale.     

不同林龄阔叶红松林林下簇毛槭的性比格局及雌雄个体的空间分布

为探讨不同发育阶段林分下的雌雄异株植物与性别相关的性比格局和空间分布, 以5.2 ha的中龄林和1.0 ha的老龄林固定监测样地内簇毛槭(Acer barbinerve)雌、雄植株的定位观测数据为基础, 对比分析了长白山不同林龄的阔叶红松林中的已花簇毛槭的性比格局、空间分布及其与环境因子间的关系。研究结果表明: 中龄林和老龄林中雌树的胸径均显著大于雄树, 总体上性比极显著偏离1:1。随着树木的生长, 性比由偏雄性转变为不再偏离1:1, 这可能是因为雄树始花胸径较小所致。O-ring单变量点格局分析显示中龄林样地中的雌树和雄树符合异质性泊松分布, 老龄林样地中的雌树和雄树均完全随机分布。O-ring双变量点格局分析显示, 在随机标签假设下, 中龄林中的雌树和雄树在1-4 m尺度上空间负相关, 在4-100 m尺度上空间独立, 老龄林中的雌树和雄树在所有尺度上空间独立。簇毛槭在中龄林和老龄林中不同的空间分布格局说明中龄林中簇毛槭分布的斑块性相对明显, 随着林分的发育, 郁闭度较高的老龄林样地中环境异质性降低, 环境因子对簇毛槭分布的影响减弱。典范冗余分析(redundancy analysis, RDA)表明在中龄林中, 林分密度只能解释3.73%的雌树分布的变异, 与雄树分布的相关性不显著, 叶面积指数和非生物因子对雌树和雄树的影响均较弱; 老龄林中簇毛槭的分布与生物因子和非生物因子的相关性均不显著。     

Stygobiotic crustacean species richness: a question of numbers,a matter of scale

Species richness in ground water is still largely underestimated, and this situation stems from two different impediments: the Linnaean (i.e. the taxonomic) and the Wallacean (i.e. the biogeographical) shortfalls. Within this fragmented frame of knowledge of subterranean biodiversity, this review was aimed at (i) assessing species richness in ground water at different spatial scales, and its contribution to overall freshwater species richness at the continental scale; (ii) analysing the contribution of historical and ecological determinants in shaping spatial patterns of stygobiotic species richness across multiple spatial scales; (iii) analysing the role of β-diversity in shaping patterns of species richness at each scale analysed. From data of the present study, a nested hierarchy of environmental factors appeared to determine stygobiotic species richness. At the broad European scale, historical factors were the major determinants in explaining species richness patterns in ground water. In particular, Quaternary glaciations have strongly affected stygobiotic species richness, leading to a marked latitudinal gradient across Europe, whereas little effects were observed in surface fresh water. Most surface-dwelling fauna is of recent origin, and colonized this realm by means of post-glacial dispersal. Historical factors seemed to have also operated at the smaller stygoregional and regional scales, where different karstic and porous aquifers showed different values of species richness. Species richness at the small, local scale was more difficult to be explained, because the analyses revealed that point-diversity in ground water was rather low, and at increasing values of regional species richness, reached a plateau. This observation supports the coarse-grained role of truncated food webs and oligotrophy, potentially reflected in competition for food resources among co-occurring species, in shaping groundwater species diversity at the local scale. Alpha-diversity resulted decoupled from γ-diversity, suggesting that β-diversity accounted for the highest values of total species richness at the spatial scales analysed.