黏膜上皮细胞:病毒侵染与机体免疫的初始交汇处

黏膜上皮细胞构成了包括呼吸道、消化道、泌尿生殖道在内的一个广阔的黏膜界面。黏膜上皮细胞、免疫细胞、免疫分子共同组成黏膜相关淋巴组织,构成了一个完整的黏膜免疫防御系统。黏膜上皮细胞通常是病毒感染的初始靶细胞。大多数DNA和RNA病毒都能直接感染黏膜上皮细胞。黏膜上皮细胞在病毒复制过程中可通过各种模式识别受体感应病毒的病原相关分子模式,从而识别病毒,并启动抗病毒固有免疫应答。近10年来,巨噬细胞炎症小体和caspase-1信号通路激活及其相应的抗感染效应成为固有免疫研究一个热点。病原相关分子模式被巨噬细胞识别,启动形成不同类型的炎症小体,激活caspase-1信号通路,诱导炎性细胞因子IL-1β和IL-18产生,造成细胞焦亡。对巨噬细胞炎症小体的研究,加深了人们对固有免疫的理解,促进了免疫识别、免疫信号转导、免疫应答、免疫调节、免疫病理等各个方面的研究。与固有免疫细胞一样,黏膜上皮细胞具有自身特征性的模式识别受体表达和分布。黏膜上皮细胞通过模式识别受体识别病毒病原相关分子模式,并激活NF-κB信号通路,产生炎性细胞因子、I型和III型干扰素,实现快速的炎性应答和发挥抗病毒作用。黏膜上皮细胞的这种快速应答释放出的各类细胞因子共同招募、激活和协调固有免疫细胞发挥固有免疫应答,并进一步调节、诱导特异性免疫细胞产生特异性抗体和T细胞应答。可见,黏膜上皮细胞是病毒侵染与机体免疫的一个最初的重要交汇处。在这个初始交汇处,黏膜上皮细胞不仅对局部黏膜免疫应答起作用,而且对系统免疫应答起着决定性调节作用。然而,黏膜上皮细胞对病原相关分子模式的识别以及相关炎症通路的激活尚处于启蒙时期。黏膜上皮细胞与炎症小体的关系值得进一步研究。新发现的III型干扰素及其在黏膜上皮细胞的独特表达分布,以及其在固有免疫应答中的抗病毒功能近年逐渐得到关注,详细机制需深入研究。此外,黏膜上皮细胞还是黏膜免疫应答特异效应因子Ig A抗体分泌和发挥功能的平台。Ig A特异性抗病毒功能,尤其是Ig A独特的上皮细胞内中和病毒复制的功能机制值得进一步探讨。现将概述病毒入侵黏膜上皮细胞并起始病毒复制过程,以及黏膜上皮细胞识别病毒感染启动固有免疫应答,调节特异免疫应答的研究进展,并探讨部分研究的交叉前沿。     

流感疫苗呼吸道黏膜免疫效应的研究进展

流感病毒通过感染呼吸道黏膜上皮细胞而入侵机体,呼吸道黏膜是机体最先接触大量病毒、细菌等吸入抗原的部位。呼吸道黏膜既可以在黏膜局部又可以引起全身对病原体感染的保护性免疫应答。近年来,随着呼吸道黏膜免疫疫苗的发展,诱导呼吸道黏膜的防御机制得到进一步深入研究。黏膜免疫分子、细胞在其中的作用逐步明确,又为黏膜免疫疫苗的发展奠定了基础。本文将从呼吸道黏膜免疫角度论述流感病毒呼吸道免疫防御机制及其滴鼻疫苗的应用。     

靶向M细胞的抗原递送¾¾增强黏膜免疫应答的关键策略

黏膜是阻止病原入侵的第一道防线,黏膜免疫系统在抵抗感染方面起着至关重要的作用。通过黏膜途径接种疫苗可以同时诱导黏膜和全身免疫反应,因此,理论上针对黏膜的免疫策略是最合理和有效的。但黏膜免疫系统的复杂性和屏障作用造成抗原诱导的免疫应答水平低下,制约了黏膜疫苗的发展。M细胞(Microfoldcells)是黏膜免疫系统所独有的,其具有捕获腔内抗原和启动抗原特异性免疫应答的功能。M细胞摄取抗原的多少直接关系到黏膜疫苗的免疫效力,而利用M细胞配体可将抗原靶向递呈给M细胞,从而实现高效的黏膜免疫应答。靶向M细胞的抗原递送策略及其应用可以提高黏膜免疫应答水平,促进黏膜疫苗的研制。尽管如此,要成功研制安全高效的黏膜疫苗,今后依然有漫长的路要走,这可能有赖于进一步探究M细胞的特性和功能及黏膜免疫机制。     

HEVAg-PLGA纳米颗粒疫苗小鼠体内免疫学研究

研究重组戊型肝炎抗原(HEVAg)-乳酸/乙醇酸共聚物(PLGA)纳米颗粒抗原能否在动物体内诱导产生免疫应答。制备HEVAg-PLGA纳米颗粒抗原后,通过皮下、滴鼻、口服途径接种Balb/c小鼠,每隔4周加强免疫两次,HEVAg与铝盐佐剂(铝佐剂疫苗Al_2O_3-Ag)为对照组,一定时间内检测抗体及细胞因子的应答水平。结果HEVAg-PLGA纳米颗粒抗原在小鼠体内诱导产生有效的体液免疫、细胞免疫。滴鼻、口服途径黏膜系统中诱导产生较高滴度的IgA抗体,ELISPOT结果显示鼻腔、唾液腺中IgA ASCs数量显著增加;皮下途径诱导产生较高滴度的IgG抗体;常规铝佐剂疫苗相比于HEVAg-PLGA纳米颗粒抗原诱导较强的IgG抗体水平,未诱导产生黏膜免疫应答;HEVAg-PLGA纳米颗粒抗原诱导产生较强细胞免疫应答,皮下接种途径IFN-γ、IL-4生成细胞数量显著高于其它免疫组。与铝佐剂疫苗相比,HEVAg-PLGA纳米颗粒抗原能有效诱导产生系统免疫及黏膜免疫应答,显示HEVAg-PLGA有潜力成为备选HEV黏膜疫苗抗原,同时展示PLGA颗粒作为黏膜系统抗原递送载体及黏膜佐剂的优越性。     

轮状病毒四价灭活疫苗的制备及在小鼠的免疫原性研究

制备轮状病毒四价灭活疫苗,观察其在小鼠体内的抗体应答情况。实验采用轮状病毒原液经凝胶过滤层析纯化,灭活后配制四价疫苗,肌肉注射免疫小鼠,ELISA法测定小鼠血清IgA、IgG。将单价G1、G2、G3、G4型灭活病毒原液及四价轮状病毒灭活疫苗免疫小鼠后,均可刺激产生针对RV的高水平的特异性IgG抗体,但IgA应答较弱。表明四价轮状病毒灭活疫苗在小鼠中具备很好的免疫原性。     

体外研究脊髓灰质炎病毒Ⅰ型疫苗株结构蛋白对人呼吸道上皮细胞内天然免疫反应系统的作用及其免疫学意义

尽管针对脊髓灰质炎病毒已经有长达数百年的研究并成功研制出了预防性疫苗,但是对于该病毒如何启动机体天然免疫反应,进而激活获得性免疫反应这一过程的具体分子机理仍有诸多空白。本研究通过体外分析脊髓灰质炎病毒Sabin减毒株Ⅰ型的结构蛋白对人呼吸道上皮细胞内天然免疫反应信号分子的影响,了解脊髓灰质炎病毒在上皮细胞中启动免疫信号的具体分子机制。采用PCR方法扩增脊髓灰质炎病毒四种结构蛋白VP1、VP2、VP3和VP4,经酶切纯化后与pcDNA3.1+真核表达载体连接,分别构建含目的基因的四种重组质粒。将重组质粒分别转染至人呼吸道上皮细胞16HBE中,48h后收集培养上清、细胞。提取细胞的总RNA,利用Q-PCR法分别检测四种结构蛋白表达所诱导的天然免疫信号分子的mRNA表达量。同时,上清、细胞裂解物分别与人T细胞共培养,检测其对T细胞增殖的影响。体外在16HBE细胞中分别表达SabinⅠ病毒VP1～VP4四种结构蛋白均可刺激如LTα3、NIK等NF-κB天然免疫信号通路相关分子的表达,并且表达这四种蛋白的细胞裂解物与T细胞共培养后均表现出刺激T细胞非特异性增殖的效应。但是,仅有VP1、VP2表达所诱导分泌相关因子的培养上清才表现出间接刺激T细胞增殖的能力。SabinⅠ毒株的四种结构蛋白可激活NF-κB信号通路,促进T细胞的非特异性增殖,从而激活适应性免疫应答。     

加单磷酰类脂A佐剂的呼吸道合胞病毒病毒体疫苗的效力与安全性

<正>在婴儿以及免疫功能低下的成人和老人中,呼吸道合胞病毒感染仍然是一个严重的健康问题,没有有效的可利用的疫苗的原因是由于存在一些障碍:非复制性呼吸道合胞病毒疫苗可引起过度的Th2型应答,增强了疫苗接种者自然感染呼吸道合胞病毒而引起的呼吸系统疾病。作者以前发现含有Toll样受体4配体单磷酰类脂A的重组呼吸道合胞病毒病毒体可加强疫苗诱导的免疫应答,并且使免疫应答倾向于Th1型应答,也就不会引起呼吸系统疾病,由于黏膜免疫接种是诱导呼吸道合胞病毒特     

流感新型黏膜疫苗的研究

目的评价PorA、PorB和Class4对流感裂解疫苗的免疫增强作用,从中挑选出最有效的流感黏膜佐剂,为发展流感黏膜疫苗提供理论基础。方法流感三价裂解抗原按比例与PorA、PorB和Class4非共价结合,滴鼻免疫Balb／c小鼠3次,采取间接ELISA检测血清特异性IgG抗体及抗体亚型,检测鼻咽、肺、小肠和阴道冲洗液中IgA效价,采用血凝抑制试验检测血清中HAI效价。结果PorB重组蛋白佐剂组较无佐剂的流感裂解抗原组在提高小鼠早期免疫应答的同时诱导较强的系统免疫应答和黏膜免疫应答;PorA组也有黏膜佐剂的功能,但和无佐剂的流感裂解抗原组相比,差异无统计学意义。结论在蛋白体的三分子中,以PorB为佐剂的流感黏膜疫苗不仅提高了抗原的系统免疫应答,而且诱导了较强的小鼠呼吸道、生殖道的局部黏膜免疫应答,为流感黏膜疫苗的研制奠定了理论基础。     

柯萨奇病毒A组16型灭活抗原对小鼠免疫保护作用的研究

为了研究柯萨奇病毒A组16型(Coxsackievirus A16,CVA16)灭活抗原在小鼠体内所产生免疫保护作用效果,我们选用CVA16临床分离株521-01T,在Vero细胞中进行大量培养,并对培养产物进行甲醛灭活及超速离心纯化。SDS-PAGE和Western blot对纯化的灭活病毒纯度及性质进行初步分析。Al(OH)3+CVA16及单独CVA16抗原,分别经皮下注射免疫雌性ICR小鼠;相同免疫途径、剂量于第14和28d加强免疫2次。ELISA法检测CVA16特异性血清IgG抗体滴度;微量中和试验法鉴定血清中和抗体滴度;酶联免疫斑点试验(ELISPOT)检测特异性T淋巴细胞的活化。对Al(OH)3+CVA16抗原免疫组母鼠所产仔鼠进行脑腔攻毒,检测母传抗体对新生乳鼠的保护作用。结果显示,Al(OH)3+CVA16灭活抗原在小鼠体内能诱生高滴度的特异性抗体,3次免疫后产生的特异性血清IgG抗体滴度最高可达1∶1×105(P=0.000),中和滴度高于1∶256。同时,该抗原还可以诱导特异性T淋巴细胞的活化。以1 000LD50的病毒量脑腔接种48h内新生乳鼠的病毒攻击实验显示,该母传抗体对新生乳鼠具有100%的保护。这一结果表明该灭活CVA16病毒抗原具有较好的免疫原性及保护性,为CVA16灭活疫苗的研究及评价体系提供了参考。     

乙型肝炎病毒急性感染小鼠模型的建立

采用高压水注射方法,通过尾静脉将具有复制能力的HBV质粒导入BABL/cJ小鼠体内,应用real-time PCR、ELISA、RIA、Southern Blot、Northern Blot,以及免疫组化等方法,检测小鼠病毒血症、血清和肝组织中HBV 抗原表达动态变化、肝组织中HBV转录和复制情况,以及小鼠免疫应答状况。结果HBV基因可以在小鼠体内表 达和复制,并诱导小鼠产生特异性免疫应答,其应答模式及HBV清除过程与人类的HBV急性感染类似。实验显 示高压注射具有复制能力的HBV质粒可以在小鼠体内建立HBV急性感染模型,这种模型可以用于HBV病毒 学、免疫学以及抗病毒药物筛选等方向的研究。     

Defective early innate immune response to ectromelia virus in the draining lymph nodes of aged mice due to impaired dendritic cell accumulation

It is known that aging decreases natural resistance to viral diseases due to dysfunctional innate and adaptive immune responses, but the nature of these dysfunctions, particularly in regard to innate immunity, is not well understood. We have previously shown that C57BL/6J (B6) mice lose their natural resistance to footpad infection with ectromelia virus (ECTV) due to impaired maturation and recruitment of natural killer (NK) cells to the draining popliteal lymph node (dLN). More recently, we have also shown that in young B6 mice infected with ECTV, the recruitment of NK cells is dependent on a complex cascade whereby migratory dendritic cells (mDCs) traffic from the skin to the dLN, where they produce CCL2 and CCL7 to recruit inflammatory monocytes (iMOs). In the dLN, mDCs also upregulate NKG2D ligands to induce interferon gamma (IFN‐γ) expression by group 1 innate lymphoid cells (G1‐ILCs), mostly NK in cells but also some ILC1. In response to the IFN‐γ, the incoming uninfected iMOs secret CXCL9 to recruit the critical NK cells. Here, we show that in aged B6 mice, the trafficking of mDCs to the dLN in response to ECTV is decreased, resulting in impaired IFN‐γ expression by G1‐ILCs, reduced accumulation of iMOs, and attenuated CXCL9 production by iMOs, which likely contributes to decrease in NK cell recruitment. Together, these data indicate that defects in the mDC response to viral infection during aging result in a reduced innate immune response in the dLN and contribute to increased susceptibility to viral disease in the aged.     

CD1d‐mediated activation of group 3 innate lymphoid cells drives IL‐22 production

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a heterogeneous family of immune cells that play a critical role in a variety of immune processes including host defence against infection, wound healing and tissue repair. Whether these cells are involved in lipid‐dependent immunity remains unexplored. Here we show that murine ILCs from a variety of tissues express the lipid‐presenting molecule CD1d, with group 3 ILCs (ILC3s) showing the highest level of expression. Within the ILC3 family, natural cytotoxicity triggering receptor (NCR)^?CCR6⁺ cells displayed the highest levels of CD1d. Expression of CD1d on ILCs is functionally relevant as ILC3s can acquire lipids in vitro and in vivo and load lipids on CD1d to mediate presentation to the T‐cell receptor of invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells. Conversely, engagement of CD1d in vitro and administration of lipid antigen in vivo induce ILC3 activation and production of IL‐22. Taken together, our data expose a previously unappreciated role for ILCs in CD1d‐mediated immunity, which can modulate tissue homeostasis and inflammatory responses.     

Development and regulation of RORγt innate lymphoid cells

RORγt⁺ innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), or ILC3, play a fundamental role in the development of lymphoid tissues, as well as in homeostasis and defence of mucosal tissues. These cells produce IL-22, IL-17A and LTα1β2, key cytokines for the activation of epithelial defences and the recruitment of polymorphonuclear phagocytes. In the absence of ILC3, the early defence to infection and resistance to injury are compromised. Given the importance of ILC3 in mucosal immunity, significant efforts are made to discover their multiple functions and decipher their mode of action and regulation.     

Molecular characteristics and possible functions of innate lymphoid cells in the uterus and gut

With the discovery of innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), which are especially enriched in barrier surfaces, the family of innate lymphocytes has grown. A unique characterization of these cells can provide a phenotypical definition of ILCs and their specific functions in different tissue environments. Although ILCs are part of the innate immune system, they are derived from lymphoid lineages lacking rearranged antigen-specific and pattern-recognition receptors. The International Union of Immunological Societies (IUIS) favors the notion that ILCs can be generally divided into five main groups, namely, NK cells, ILC1s, ILC2s, ILC3s and LTi cells. These cells can be specifically stimulated by environmental and pathogen-derived signals. Upon stimulation, ILCs can rapidly secrete a wide range of soluble cytokines that can modulate the functions of effector cells. Over the last decade, ILCs, especially helper ILCs, which do not include NK cells, have been recognized to be a crucial cell type involved in integrating diverse host immune responses. Recently, emerging research has shown that helper ILCs also play a critical role in promoting tissue restoration and immune responses at barrier surfaces. Notably, helper ILCs act as a double-edged sword, being involved in the inflammatory and reparative responses during homeostasis and disease. Therefore, in this review, we summarize the current findings regarding the molecular characteristics and tissue-specific effector functions of helper ILCs in the uterus during physiological and pathological pregnancy and in the intestine during homeostasis and inflammation.     

Involvement of autophagy in NK cell development and function

Natural killer (NK) cells are the prototypical members of the recently identified family of innate lymphoid cells (ILCs). Thanks to their cytotoxic and secretory functions, NK cells play a key role in the immune response to cells experiencing various forms of stress, including viral infection and malignant transformation. Autophagy is a highly conserved network of degradative pathways that participate in the maintenance of cellular and organismal homeostasis as they promote adaptation to adverse microenvironmental conditions. The relevance of autophagy in the development and functionality of cellular components of the adaptive immune system is well established. Conversely, whether autophagy also plays an important role in the biology of ILC populations such as NK cells has long remained elusive. Recent experimental evidence shows that ablating Atg5 (autophagy-related 5, an essential component of the autophagic machinery) in NK cells and other specific ILC populations results in progressive mitochondrial damage, reactive oxygen species (ROS) overgeneration, and regulated cell death, hence interrupting ILC development. Moreover, disrupting the interaction of ATG7 with phosphorylated FOXO1 (forkhead box O1) in the cytosol of immature NK cells prevents autophagic responses that are essential for NK cell maturation. These findings suggest that activating autophagy may support the maturation of NK cells and other ILCs that manifest antiviral and anticancer activity.     

Binding and entry of respiratory syncytial virus into host cells and initiation of the innate immune response

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most common cause of severe lower respiratory tract infection in infants and the elderly. There is currently no effective antiviral treatment for the infection, but advances in our understanding of RSV uptake, especially the role of surfactant proteins, the attachment protein G and the fusion protein F, as well as the post-binding events, have revealed potential targets for new therapies and vaccine development. RSV infection triggers an intense inflammatory response, mediated initially by the infected airway epithelial cells and antigen-presenting cells. Humoral and cell-mediated immune responses are important in controlling the extent of infection and promoting viral clearance. The initial innate immune response may play a critical role by influencing the subsequent adaptive response generated. This review summarizes our current understanding of RSV binding and uptake in mammalian cells and how these initial interactions influence the subsequent innate immune response generated.