《自然》：研究发现恶性疟原虫有效干预途径

抗疟药物通常只对部分种类的疟原虫有效,这是疟疾防治一直以来的难题。英国研究人员日前在破解这一难题方面取得进展。他们发现了一种对所有恶性疟原虫都有效的治疗途径。     

科研快讯

《自然》:研究发现恶性疟原虫有效干预途径抗疟药物通常只对部分种类的疟原虫有效,这是疟疾防治一直以来的难题。英国研究人员日前在破解这一难题方面取得进展,他们发现了一种对所有恶性疟原虫都有效的治疗途径。英国桑格研究所等机构研究人员在《自然》杂志网站上报告说,他们发现疟原虫在人体血液中入侵红细胞的时候,红细胞上一种名为basigin     

青蒿素复方快速清除疟疾传染源

正疟疾是全球三大传染病(艾滋病、疟疾、结核)之一.20世纪60年代以来,恶性疟原虫对原有的抗疟药如氯喹、Fansidar等逐渐产生抗药性,随着抗药性恶性疟的全球蔓延,全球疟疾发病率和病死率有增无减.2004年5月,世界卫生组织正式向各国推荐使用以青蒿类药物为基础的联合用药,这是被世界卫生组织评价为"目前世界范围内治疗恶性疟疾的唯一真正有效的药物".1974年10月,在青蒿素对恶性疟的疗效尚不明确的情况下,全国抗疟研究办公室("523"办公室)将     

二氢乳清酸脱氢酶作为抗肿瘤靶点的研究进展

二氢乳清酸脱氢酶(dihydroorotate dehydrogenase,DHODH)是存在于线粒体内膜的一种含铁的黄素依赖酶,这种酶催化嘧啶核苷酸从头合成途径的第4步反应。而嘧啶核苷酸可用于DNA、RNA、糖蛋白和磷脂生物合成,对于细胞代谢和细胞增殖至关重要。近年来的研究表明,DHODH与多种肿瘤的发生、发展密切相关,抑制或下调DHODH可以降低肿瘤细胞增殖,诱导其凋亡或者增加其他靶点药物的抗肿瘤效果。该文结合所在实验室目前的研究成果及进展,就DHODH作为治疗恶性肿瘤靶点的相关机制及当前DHODH抑制剂的研究进展作一综述。     

嘧啶结构骨架类抗疟药研究进展

嘧啶结构骨架是抗疟史上最为重要的药效团之一,因其具有多种药理活性且较易于合成与改造而受到广泛的关注。近年来,部分传统的抗疟药物已出现了耐药性,治疗效果明显降低,因此对传统抗疟药物进行结构修饰已势在必行。对近10年来发现的新型嘧啶结构骨架化合物(苯并嘧啶、胺基嘧啶、喹啉并嘧啶和噻吩并嘧啶)在结构特征、抗疟活性和构效关系等方面进行了综述,以期为新型抗疟药的设计提供一些参考。     

肝素/硫化肝素在恶性疟原虫入侵红细胞过程中的作用机制

疟疾是疟原虫通过雌性按蚊为媒介传播的寄生虫病,是当今世界公共卫生的突出问题.寄生于人体的疟原虫主要包括恶性疟原虫、间日疟原虫、三日疟原虫、卵形疟原虫和诺氏疟原虫5种,其中,恶性疟原虫的致病性最为强烈,是导致全球疟疾发病和死亡的重要病原体.硫化肝素是广泛分布于脊椎动物细胞表面的无支链多糖,为疟原虫入侵宿主红细胞的一个重要受体,在疟原虫入侵过程中发挥着重要的作用.疟原虫入侵宿主红细胞是一个快速而复杂的过程,恶性疟原虫入侵相关蛋白质在疟原虫入侵过程中具有重要的作用,主要参与黏附宿主红细胞、形成移动连接复合体、形成和修饰纳虫空泡等过程.黏附是恶性疟原虫入侵宿主红细胞的第一步,入侵相关蛋白质与宿主红细胞表面硫化肝素受体结合,继而完成后续的入侵.综合国内外文献,本文围绕肝素/硫化肝素在治疗恶性疟疾中的应用、与恶性疟原虫入侵相关蛋白质的结合以及恶性疟原虫入侵相关蛋白质在裂殖子入侵宿主红细胞过程中的作用机制等研究方面进行综述,为恶性疟原虫入侵过程中相关蛋白质与肝素结合的分子机制提供理论依据,同时也为新型抗疟药物和疫苗的研制以及治疗提供参考.     

无载体固定化黄花蒿细胞生产青蒿素

疟疾是一种严重危害人类健康的流行病,主要由疟原虫经蚊虫叮咬引起。目前,在临床上疟原虫对治疗疟疾的药物(如氯奎等)有较强的耐药性,并表现出明显的交叉耐药性。来自黄花蒿的青蒿素具有极其明显的抗疟活性,成为临床首选的药物,因此青蒿素的获取成为关键。本研究采用无载体固定化法培养黄花蒿生产青蒿素,初步研究了无载体固定化细胞的生长特性。检测发现,利用该方法生产的青蒿素是常规细胞培养法的9倍,因此该方法有望成为青蒿素生产的首选方法。     

青蒿倍半萜合酶(环化酶)研究进展

青蒿素是从中药青蒿中分离得到的抗疟有效单体,是含有过氧基团的新型倍半萜内酯化合物,是目前世界上最有效的疟疾治疗药物。青蒿素的生物合成途径属于类异戊二烯代谢途径中的倍半萜类分支途径,倍半萜合酶是该途径的关键酶之一,目前已从青蒿中克隆了多个倍半萜合酶基因。综述了青蒿中已克隆的几种倍半萜合酶基因的研究进展。     

青蒿倍半萜合酶(环化酶)研究进展

青蒿素是从中药青蒿中分离得到的抗疟有效单体,是含有过氧基团的新型倍半萜内酯化合物,是目前世界上最有效的疟疾治疗药物。青蒿素的生物合成途径属于类异戊二烯代谢途径中的倍半萜类分支途径,倍半萜合酶是该途径的关键酶之一,目前已从青蒿中克隆了多个倍半萜合酶基因。综述了青蒿中已克隆的几种倍半萜合酶基因的研究进展。     

一种猴疟原虫的鉴定报告

猴疟原虫的宿主属灵长类,而且它的生物学特征与人体疟原虫相近似,因而对于研究人类的疟疾具有重要价值。现在,疟疾的猴模型已较广泛地应用于有关疟疾的抗疟药药理、生理生化、免疫和病理等方面的研究。同吋,由于某些猴疟原虫可以传播给人而特别引起人们的重视。Garnham(1966)、Eyles(1963)和Coatney等(1971)分别对猴疟原虫的资料作了较详细的叙述。目前在实验研究中常以Plasmodium cynomolgi作为间日疟型的代表,而以Plasmodium inui与Plasmodium coameyt分别代表三日疟型和恶性疟型。     

Molecular docking analysis of Plasmodium falciparum dihydroorotate dehydrogenase towards the design of effective inhibitors

Malaria remains a global public health burden with significant mortality and morbidity. Despite the several approved drugs available for its management, the parasite has developed resistance to virtually all known antimalarial drugs. The development of a new drug that can combat resistant to Artemisinin based Combination Therapies (ACTs) for malaria is imperative. Plasmodium falciparum dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (PfDHODH), a flavin-dependent mitochondrial enzyme is vital in the parasite''s pyrimidine biosynthesis is a well-known drug target. Therefore, it is of interest to document the MOLECULAR DOCKING analysis (using Maestro, Schrodinger) data of DIHYDROOROTATE DEHYDROGENASE PfDHODH from P. falciparum towards the design of effective inhibitors. The molecular docking features of 10 compounds with reference to chloroquine with PfDHODH are documented in this report for further consideration.     

A systematic map of genetic variation in Plasmodium falciparum

Discovering novel genes involved in immune evasion and drug resistance in the human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, is of critical importance to global health. Such knowledge may assist in the development of new effective vaccines and in the appropriate use of antimalarial drugs. By performing a full-genome scan of allelic variability in 14 field and laboratory strains of P. falciparum, we comprehensively identified approximately 500 genes evolving at higher than neutral rates. The majority of the most variable genes have paralogs within the P. falciparum genome and may be subject to a different evolutionary clock than those without. The group of 211 variable genes without paralogs contains most known immunogens and a few drug targets, consistent with the idea that the human immune system and drug use is driving parasite evolution. We also reveal gene-amplification events including one surrounding pfmdr1, the P. falciparum multidrug-resistance gene, and a previously uncharacterized amplification centered around the P. falciparum GTP cyclohydrolase gene, the first enzyme in the folate biosynthesis pathway. Although GTP cyclohydrolase is not the known target of any current drugs, downstream members of the pathway are targeted by several widely used antimalarials. We speculate that an amplification of the GTP cyclohydrolase enzyme in the folate biosynthesis pathway may increase flux through this pathway and facilitate parasite resistance to antifolate drugs.     

Glucose-6-phosphate metabolism in Plasmodium falciparum

Malaria is still one of the most threatening diseases worldwide. The high drug resistance rates of malarial parasites make its eradication difficult and furthermore necessitate the development of new antimalarial drugs. Plasmodium falciparum is responsible for severe malaria and therefore of special interest with regard to drug development. Plasmodium parasites are highly dependent on glucose and very sensitive to oxidative stress; two observations that drew interest to the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) with its key enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD). A central position of the PPP for malaria parasites is supported by the fact that human G6PD deficiency protects to a certain degree from malaria infections. Plasmodium parasites and the human host possess a complete PPP, both of which seem to be important for the parasites. Interestingly, there are major differences between parasite and human G6PD, making the enzyme of Plasmodium a promising target for antimalarial drug design. This review gives an overview of the current state of research on glucose-6-phosphate metabolism in P. falciparum and its impact on malaria infections. Moreover, the unique characteristics of the enzyme G6PD in P. falciparum are discussed, upon which its current status as promising target for drug development is based.     

A novel enzyme complex of orotate phosphoribosyltransferase and orotidine 5'-monophosphate decarboxylase in human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum: physical association, kinetics, and inhibition characterization

Human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, can only synthesize pyrimidine nucleotides using the de novo pathway, whereas mammalian cells obtain pyrimidine nucleotides from both the de novo and salvage pathways. The parasite's orotate phosphoribosyltransferase (PfOPRT) and orotidine 5'-monophosphate decarboxylase (PfOMPDC) of the de novo pyrimidine pathway are attractive targets for antimalarial drug development. Previously, we have reported that the two enzymes in P. falciparum exist as a multienzyme complex containing two subunits each of 33-kDa PfOPRT and 38-kDa PfOMPDC. In this report, the gene encoding PfOPRT has been cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. An open reading frame of PfOMPDC gene was identified in the malaria genome database, and PfOMPDC was cloned from P. falciparum cDNA, functionally expressed in E. coli, purified, and characterized. The protein sequence has <20% identity with human OMPDC and four microbial OMPDC for which crystal structures are known. Recombinant PfOMPDC was catalytically active in a dimeric form. Both recombinant PfOPRT and PfOMPDC monofunctional enzymes were kinetically different from the native multienzyme complex purified from P. falciparum. Oligomerization of PfOPRT and PfOMPDC cross-linked by dimethyl suberimidate indicated that they were tightly associated as the heterotetrameric 140-kDa complex, (PfOPRT)2(PfOMPDC)2. Kinetic analysis of the PfOPRT-PfOMPDC associated complex was similar to that of the native P. falciparum enzymes and was different from that of the bifunctional human enzymes. Interestingly, a nanomolar inhibitor of the yeast OMPDC, 6-thiocarboxamido-uridine 5'-monophosphate, was about 5 orders of magnitude less effective on the PfOMPDC than on the yeast enzyme. Our results support that the malaria parasite has unique structural and functional properties, sharing characteristics of the monofunctional pyrimidine-metabolizing enzymes in prokaryotes and bifunctional complexes in eukaryotes.     

1-Deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase: an overview

The methylerythritol phosphate pathway to isoprenoids, an alternate biosynthetic route present in many bacteria, algae, plants, and the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum, has become an attractive target for the development of new antimalarial and antibacterial compounds. The second enzyme in this pathway, 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR; EC 1.1.1.267), has been shown to be the molecular target for fosmidomycin, a promising antimalarial drug. This enzyme converts 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate (DXP) into the branched compound 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP). The transformation of DXP into MEP requires an isomerization, followed by a NADPH-dependent reduction. The discovery of DXR, its subsequent characterization, and the identification of inhibitors will be presented.     

Ferredoxin-NADP+ reductase from Plasmodium falciparum undergoes NADP+-dependent dimerization and inactivation: functional and crystallographic analysis

The completion of the Plasmodium falciparum genome sequence has recently promoted the search for new antimalarial drugs. More specifically, metabolic pathways of the apicoplast, a key organelle for survival of the parasite, have been recognized as potential targets for the development of specific new antimalarial agents. As most apicomplexan parasites, P. falciparum displays a plant-type ferredoxin-NADP(+) reductase, yielding reduced ferredoxin for essential biosynthetic pathways in the apicoplast. Here we report a molecular, kinetic and ligand binding characterization of the recombinant ferredoxin-NADP(+) reductase from P. falciparum, in the light of current data available for plant ferredoxin-NADP(+) reductases. In parallel with the functional characterization, we describe the crystal structures of P. falciparum ferredoxin-NADP(+) reductase in free form and in complex with 2'-phospho-AMP (at 2.4 and 2.7 A resolution, respectively). The enzyme displays structural properties likely to be unique to plasmodial reductases. In particular, the two crystal structures highlight a covalent dimer, which relies on the oxidation of residue Cys99 in two opposing subunits, and a helix-coil transition that occurs in the NADP-binding domain, triggered by 2'-phospho-AMP binding. Studies in solution show that NADP(+), as well as 2'-phospho-AMP, promotes the formation of the disulfide-stabilized dimer. The isolated dimer is essentially inactive, but full activity is recovered upon disulfide reduction. The occurrence of residues unique to the plasmodial enzyme, and the discovery of specific conformational properties, highlight the NADP-binding domain of P. falciparum ferredoxin-NADP(+) reductase as particularly suited for the rational development of antimalarial compounds.     

Double-drug development against antioxidant enzymes from Plasmodium falciparum

New drugs against malaria are urgently and continuously needed. Plasmodium parasites are exposed to higher fluxes of reactive oxygen species and need high activities of intracellular antioxidant systems. A most important antioxidative system consists of (di)thiols which are recycled by disulfide reductases (DR), namely both glutathione reductases (GR) of the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum and man, and the thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) of P. falciparum. The aim of our interdisciplinary research is to substantiate DR inhibitors as antimalarial agents. Such compounds are active per se but, in addition, they can reverse thiol-based resistance against other drugs in parasites. Reversal of drug resistance by DR inhibitors is currently investigated for the commonly used antimalarial drug chloroquine (CQ). Our recent strategy is based on the synthesis of inhibitors of the glutathione reductases from parasite and host erythrocyte. With the expectation of a synergistic or additive effect, double-headed prodrugs were designed to be directed against two different and essential functions of the malarial parasite P. falciparum, namely glutathione regeneration and heme detoxification. The prodrugs were prepared by linking bioreversibly a GR inhibitor to a 4-aminoquinoline moiety which is known to concentrate in the acidic food vacuole of parasites. Drug-enzyme interaction was correlated with antiparasitic action in vitro on strains resistant towards CQ and in vivo in Plasmodium berghei-infected mice as well as absence of cytotoxicity towards human cells. Because TrxR of P. falciparum was recently shown to be responsible for the residual glutathione disulfide-reducing capacity observed after GR inhibition in P. falciparum, future development of antimalarial drug-candidates that act by perturbing the redox equilibrium of parasites is based on the design of new double-drugs based on TrxR inhibitors as potential antimalarial drug candidates.     

Subcellular localization and characterization of chorismate synthase in the apicomplexan Plasmodium falciparum

The resurgence of drug-resistant apicomplexa, in particular Plasmodium falciparum, the most fatal human malarial parasite, has focused attention on the recent discovery of the shikimate pathway in these organisms, as it may provide the urgently required, novel drug targets resulting from the absence of this pathway in mammals. The direction of a parasiticidal drug design programme obviously requires knowledge of the subcellular localization and indeed full characterization of the possible enzyme targets. Here, we report the cloning and characterization of chorismate synthase from P. falciparum and present the first biochemical and immunological studies of an enzyme of the shikimate pathway from an apicomplexan parasite. We show that this chorismate synthase does not possess an intrinsic flavin reductase activity and is therefore monofunctional like the plant and bacterial chorismate synthases. Highest immunological cross-reactivity was found with a plant chorismate synthase. However, in contrast to the plant enzyme, which is located to the plastid, P. falciparum chorismate synthase is found in the parasite cytosol, akin to the fungal enzymes that possess an intrinsic flavin reductase activity (i.e. are bifunctional). Thus, P. falciparum chorismate synthase has a combination of properties that distinguishes it from other described chorismate synthases.     

High-throughput screening for small-molecule inhibitors of plasmodium falciparum glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase 6-phosphogluconolactonase

Plasmodium falciparum causes severe malaria infections in millions of people every year. The parasite is developing resistance to the most common antimalarial drugs, which creates an urgent need for new therapeutics. A promising and attractive target for antimalarial drug design is the bifunctional enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase-6-phosphogluconolactonase (PfGluPho) of P. falciparum, which catalyzes the key step in the parasites' pentose phosphate pathway. In this study, we describe the development of a high-throughput screening assay to identify small-molecule inhibitors of recombinant PfGluPho. The optimized assay was used to screen three small-molecule compound libraries-namely, LOPAC (Sigma-Aldrich, 1280 compounds), Spectrum (MicroSource Discovery Systems, 1969 compounds), and DIVERSet (ChemBridge, 49 971 compounds). These pilot screens identified 899 compounds that inhibited PfGluPho activity by at least 50%. Selected compounds were further studied to determine IC(50) values in an orthogonal assay, the type of inhibition and reversibility, and effects on P. falciparum growth. Screening results and follow-up studies for selected PfGluPho inhibitors are presented. Our high-throughput screening assay may provide the basis to identify novel and urgently needed antimalarial drugs.     

Cleavage of DNA induced by 9-anilinoacridine inhibitors of topoisomerase II in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum

Due to resistance by Plasmodium falciparum, the most virulent strain of the four species of human malaria parasites, to most currently used antimalarial drugs, development of new effective antimalarials is urgently needed. Derivatives of 9-anilinoacridine, an antitumor drug, have been shown to inhibit P. falciparum growth in culture and to inhibit parasite DNA topoisomerase II activity in vitro. Using KCl-SDS precipitation assay to detect the presence of protein-DNA complexes within parasite cells, an indicator of DNA topoisomerase II inactivation, derivatives containing 3,6-diNH(2) substitutions with 1'-electron donating (NMe(2), CH(2)NMe(2), NHSO(2)Me, OH, OMe), and 1'-electron withdrawing (SO(2)NH(2)) groups produced protein-DNA complexes. However, the antimalarial pyronaridine, 9-anilinoazaacridine, did not generate protein-DNA complexes, although it was capable of inhibiting P. falciparum DNA topoisomerase II activity in vitro. These results should prove useful in future designs of novel antimalarial compounds directed against parasite DNA topoisomerase II.