中枢神经系统谷氨酸转运体的研究进展

在中枢神经系统,谷氨酸转运体在谷氨酸一谷氨酰胺循环中发挥着重要作用。谷氨酸转运体有高亲和力转运体,即兴奋性氨基酸转运体（excitatory amino acid transporters,EAATs）和低亲和力转运体,即囊泡谷氨酸转运体（vesicular glutamate transporters,VGLUTs）两种类型。其中,VGLUTs的功能是特异地将突触囊泡外的谷氨酸转运进入突触囊泡内,它包括三个成员,分别是VGLUT1、VGLUT2和VGLUT3。一方面,VGLUT1和VGLUT2标记了所有的谷氨酸能神经元,是谷氦酸能神经元和它们轴突末端高度特异的标志;另一方面,VGLUT1标志着皮质一皮质投射,而VGLUT2则标志着丘脑一皮层投射,VGLUT3则位于抑制性突触末端。     

学习和记忆相关基因:Calsyntenins家族

Calsyntenins（Cstn）是一个独特的将胞外蛋白水解活性与胞内Ca^2＋信号转导相连在一起的家族,属于钙结合蛋白,与钙离子结合,参与信号转导和细胞交流。它包括3个成员,分别为calsyntenin-1、calsyntenin-2和calsyntenin-3,皆为突触后膜蛋白,主要在脑的神经元中表达,但表达模式各自不同,而且其蛋白也表现出高度的结构多样性。Calsyntenin-1位于中枢神经系统（CNS）突触后膜,是一个突触后膜蛋白水解的蛋白质。有一个结合钙的胞质酸性结构域,是一个通过胞外蛋白水解来调节突触后钙的动力调节子。Calsyntenin-1调节突触后膜下或胞内Ca^2＋储存库中的Ca^2＋瞬变,从而参与长时程增强（LTP）和长时程抑制（LTD）,与学习和记忆功能紧密相关。尤其是最近研究发现,β淀粉样蛋白前体（APP）和calsyntenins共同作用增加了β淀粉样蛋白（Aβ）的分泌,从而造成神经系统紊乱,促进阿尔采末病（AD）的发生,这对于AD发病机制的揭示和开发新一代治疗AD的药物具有重要的意义。     

β-淀粉样蛋白前体蛋白胞内结构域（AICD）研究进展

老年性痴呆症（Alzheimer’s disease,AD）一个重要的病理学特征,是在神经细胞外形成由β-淀粉样蛋白（β-amyloid,Aβ）组成的淀粉样斑（amyloidplaques）。β-淀粉样蛋白前体蛋白（β-amyloidprocursorprotein,APP）经β-分泌酶和γ-分泌酶依次水解后产生AB和APP胞内结构域（APP intrace Uulardomain,AICD）。现在已经知道AB在AD的发病机制中起着关键作用,但是关于AICD的生理及病理功能还不清楚。近年来研究发现AICD可以与细胞内多种蛋白相互作用,而且AICD在基因转录、细胞凋亡以及APP的加工和运输过程中均有调节功能。本文针对这一领域的研究进展,对AICD的生理及病理功能进行探讨。     

老年痴呆症中神经递质释放异常的机理

阿尔茨海默症(Alzheimer’s disease,AD)是以胞外淀粉样蛋白(amyloid-β,Aβ)沉积和胞内神经纤维缠结为病理特征的神经退行性疾病。AD典型症状的出现与中枢神经系统突触数量的减少密切相关,因此,明确AD早期突触数量还没有明显降低时突触功能失调的机制对AD的临床诊治具有十分重要的意义。寡聚Aβ、早老素功能缺失等因素造成的突触前神经递质释放异常很有可能是AD突触功能异常的上游机制。对AD中神经递质释放异常的现象和机制进行综述,并对这一领域存在的开放问题作一归纳。     

Alzheimer氏病淀粉样前体蛋白的研究进展

Alzheimer氏病(AD)是一种发生于老年人群的原发性退行性脑病,其特征性病变为细胞内神经纤维缠绕(NFT)及细胞外老年斑(SP).构成SP的主要成分β淀粉样多肽(βA)为一由淀粉样前体蛋白(APP)剪切而来的分子质量约为4 ku的多肽,其神经毒性可能由其氧化作用和在脂质双层中形成的Ca²⁺通道所致.APP的功能目前尚未完全明了,可能具有促进细胞粘附、维护突触膜稳定性等功能.APP主要通过两种途径进行加工修饰：一为分泌途径,由一些假定的分泌酶催化;另一为胞内体-溶酶体途径.在形成SP的βA中,较长者比短者更易聚集,因此一些APP突变由于能够释放出更多的较长的βA或者使较短的βA生成量增加而致发家族性AD.一些可能在APP的代谢中起着重要作用的因素,如早衰蛋白的突变,也可通过增加βA的生成量而致发AD.     

β-淀粉样前体蛋白裂解途径及截断型β-淀粉样蛋白对阿尔茨海默病的影响

阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer disease’s, AD)是以老年斑(senile plaques, SPs)、神经原纤维缠结(neurofibrillary tangles, NFTs)等为主要病理特征的神经退行性疾病。β-淀粉样蛋白(β-amyloid protein, Aβ)在神经元胞外聚集形成老年斑,是引起AD的关键因素。过量Aβ的产生来源于β-淀粉样前体蛋白(β-amyloid precursor protein, APP)裂解途径的异常。因此,探究APP在AD的发病过程中裂解途径及Aβ的产生机制具有重要意义。目前,很多药物研究以减少和清除老年斑为目的,但是老年斑的形成是由全长Aβ和多种截断型Aβ共同作用的结果,并且其对SPs形成的影响作用机制尚未完全明确。本文就APP裂解途径及截断型Aβ的产生机制进行综述,以期为AD的研究提供理论依据。     

microRNA 对淀粉样前体蛋白调控的研究进展

淀粉样前体蛋白(APP)参与了神经肌肉的信号传导、突触的可塑性及空间学习等生理过程,APP在阿兹海默病(AD)人脑组织中高表达,其切割产物β淀粉样蛋白(Aβ)则在AD的发生发展中起到重要作用。2011年4月,美国阿兹海默病协会将Aβ的聚集程度列入了新版AD诊疗指南中,通过减少APP的表达或降低其以β切割方式进行代谢来延缓AD的进展已成为很多学者的共识。microRNA(miRNA)是一类内生的、长度约19-24个核苷酸的小RNA,其在细胞内具有多种重要的调节作用,据推测,miRNA调控着人类约三分之一的基因。自2008年首次明确miRNA对APP表达存在调控作用之后,miRNA对APP的调控和相关机制的研究以及其对AD诊断和治疗潜在价值的探索已成为AD研究领域的热点之一,本文主要就miRNA对APP的表达、剪切和切割的调控及Aβ对miRNA的影响做一综述。     

α分泌酶在阿尔茨海默病治疗中的作用

阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer!sdisease,AD)是老年人常见的一种神经系统变性疾病,其特征性病理变化是患者脑内的神经炎性斑,神经炎性斑的主要成分是细胞外β淀粉样蛋白(βamyloid,Aβ)的沉积.Aβ由其前体物质——淀粉样前体蛋白(amyloidprecursorprotein,APP)经β分泌酶和γ分泌酶系列水解而来.APP也可在α分泌酶和γ分泌酶的序列作用下水解,既避免了完整Aβ分子的产生,又产生了对细胞有益的胞外片段(sAPPα),因此这条代谢途径已成为研究AD治疗的靶点.较多的实验结果显示,一类解聚素和金属蛋白酶(adisintegrinandmetalloproteinase,ADAM)分子具有α分泌酶的功能,α分泌酶有可能成为AD治疗的潜在药物靶点.     

基于淀粉样蛋白级联假说的阿尔茨海默症防治研究进展

阿尔茨海默症（Alzheimer＇s Disease,AD）是一种中枢神经系统退行性病变,目前发病机制不清。淀粉样蛋白级联假说是有关AD发病机制的主流学说,认为脑内过量产生的β-淀粉样蛋白（β-amyloid peptide,Aβ）是引发AD的主要原因。针对Aβ的生成、聚集、清除及靶向治疗相关的药物开发是目前的研究热点,就淀粉样蛋白级联假说的最新研究进展及AD的预防治疗现状作一综述。     

淀粉样前体蛋白生理功能研究进展

阿尔茨海默病(alzheimer's diasese,AD)是一种神经退行性疾病,以β淀粉样肽(βamyloid,Aβ)为主要成分的老年斑是脑内的主要病理改变,因此Aβ的过量产生和沉积是AD主要发病机制。Aβ主要由淀粉样前体蛋白(amyloid precursor protein,APP)经β和γ分泌酶异常剪切产生,APP表达增加被认为是AD的风险因素之一,目前关于APP的研究主要集中在作为Aβ的前体如何剪切及在AD发病中的作用,而对APP的生理功能关注较少。近年研究发现APP具有广泛的生理功能,APP缺失可以影响学习记忆,这与其剪切及Aβ的产生均无关。APP广泛表达于多种器官和组织,生理功能具有多样性,因此了解APP的生理功能将为AD发病机制的研究与治疗干预提供重要的理论依据。本文对此进行综述。     

β淀粉样肽在阿尔兹海默病中作用的逐步认识

阿尔兹海默病(Alzheimer’s disease,AD)是老年痴呆症中最常见的一种疾病,其特征性病理变化之一是大脑内淀粉样斑块积累。自从淀粉样斑块的主要成分被发现是β淀粉样肽(Aβ)后,大量研究表明,Aβ积累在AD的大脑病理变化和认知障碍中起重要作用。在AD大脑中,Aβ以可溶和不可溶的聚合形式在细胞内外积累。介绍了Aβ积累在AD中起重要作用的依据,人们对于不同聚合形式的Aβ和细胞内外积累的Aβ在AD中的作用的认识过程和存在的问题。     

Down-regulation of vesicular glutamate transporters precedes cell loss and pathology in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized pathologically by plaques, tangles, and cell and synapse loss. As glutamate is the principle excitatory neurotransmitter of the CNS, the glutamatergic system may play an important role in AD. An essential step in glutamate neurotransmission is the concentration of glutamate into synaptic vesicles before release from the presynaptic terminal. Recently a group of proteins responsible for uptake has been identified - the vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUTs). The generation of antibodies has facilitated the study of glutamatergic neurones. Here, we used antibodies to the VGLUTs together with immunohistochemistry and western blotting to investigate the status of glutamatergic neurones in temporal, parietal and occipital cortices of patients with AD; these regions were chosen to represent severely, moderately and mildly affected regions at the end stage of the disease. There was no change in expression of the synaptic markers in relation to total protein in the temporal cortex, but a significant reduction in synaptophysin and VGLUT1 was found in both the parietal and occipital cortices. These changes were found to relate to the number of tangles in the temporal cortex. There were no correlations with either mental test score or behaviour syndromes, with the exception of depression.     

N-cadherin enhances APP dimerization at the extracellular domain and modulates Aβ production

Sequential processing of amyloid precursor protein (APP) by β- and γ-secretase leads to the generation of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides, which plays a central role in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. APP is capable of forming a homodimer through its extracellular domain as well as transmembrane GXXXG motifs. A number of reports have shown that dimerization of APP modulates Aβ production. On the other hand, we have previously reported that N-cadherin-based synaptic contact is tightly linked to Aβ production. In the present report, we investigated the effect of N-cadherin expression on APP dimerization and metabolism. Here, we demonstrate that N-cadherin expression facilitates cis-dimerization of APP. Moreover, N-cadherin expression led to increased production of Aβ as well as soluble APPβ, indicating that β-secretase-mediated cleavage of APP is enhanced. Interestingly, N-cadherin expression affected neither dimerization of C99 nor Aβ production from C99, suggesting that the effect of N-cadherin on APP metabolism is mediated through APP extracellular domain. We confirmed that N-cadherin enhances APP dimerization by a novel luciferase-complementation assay, which could be a platform for drug screening on a high-throughput basis. Taken together, our results suggest that modulation of APP dimerization state could be one of mechanisms, which links synaptic contact and Aβ production.     

Synaptic and vesicular co-localization of the glutamate transporters VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 in the mouse hippocampus

Vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUTs) are essential to glutamatergic synapses and determine the glutamatergic phenotype of neurones. The three known VGLUT isoforms display nearly identical uptake characteristics, but the associated expression domains in the adult rodent brain are largely segregated. Indeed, indirect evidence obtained in young VGLUT1-deficient mice indicated that in cells that co-express VGLUT1 and VGLUT2, the transporters may be targeted to different synaptic vesicles, which may populate different types of synapses formed by the same neurone. Direct evidence for a systematic segregation of VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 to distinct synapses and vesicles is lacking, and the mechanisms that may convey this segregation are not known. We show here that VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 are co-localized in many layers of the young hippocampus. Strikingly, VGLUT2 co-localizes with VGLUT1 in the mossy fibers at early stages. Furthermore, we show that a fraction of VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 is carried by the same vesicles at these stages. Hence, hippocampal neurones co-expressing VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 do not appear to sort them to separate vesicle pools. As the number of transporter molecules per vesicle affects quantal size, the developmental window where VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 are co-expressed may allow for greater plasticity in the control of quantal release.     

Excitability and synaptic alterations in the cerebellum of APP/PS1 mice

In Alzheimer's disease (AD), the severity of cognitive symptoms is better correlated with the levels of soluble amyloid-beta (Aβ) rather than with the deposition of fibrillar Aβ in amyloid plaques. In APP/PS1 mice, a murine model of AD, at 8 months of age the cerebellum is devoid of fibrillar Aβ, but dosage of soluble Aβ(1-42), the form which is more prone to aggregation, showed higher levels in this structure than in the forebrain. Aim of this study was to investigate the alterations of intrinsic membrane properties and of synaptic inputs in Purkinje cells (PCs) of the cerebellum, where only soluble Aβ is present. PCs were recorded by whole-cell patch-clamp in cerebellar slices from wild-type and APP/PS1 mice. In APP/PS1 PCs, evoked action potential discharge showed enhanced frequency adaptation and larger afterhyperpolarizations, indicating a reduction of the intrinsic membrane excitability. In the miniature GABAergic postsynaptic currents, the largest events were absent in APP/PS1 mice and the interspike intervals distribution was shifted to the left, but the mean amplitude and frequency were normal. The ryanodine-sensitive multivescicular release was not altered and the postsynaptic responsiveness to a GABA(A) agonist was intact. Climbing fiber postsynaptic currents were normal but their short-term plasticity was reduced in a time window of 100-800 ms. Parallel fiber postsynaptic currents and their short-term plasticity were normal. These results indicate that, in the cerebellar cortex, chronically elevated levels of soluble Aβ(1-42) are associated with alterations of the intrinsic excitability of PCs and with alterations of the release of GABA from interneurons and of glutamate from climbing fibers, while the release of glutamate from parallel fibers and all postsynaptic mechanisms are preserved. Thus, soluble Aβ(1-42) causes, in PCs, multiple functional alterations, including an impairment of intrinsic membrane properties and synapse-specific deficits, with differential consequences even in different subtypes of glutamatergic synapses.     

Large quantities of Abeta peptide are constitutively released during amyloid precursor protein metabolism in vivo and in vitro

The metabolism of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) has been extensively investigated because its processing generates the amyloid-β-peptide (Aβ), which is a likely cause of Alzheimer disease. Much prior research has focused on APP processing using transgenic constructs and heterologous cell lines. Work to date in native neuronal cultures suggests that Aβ is produced in very large amounts. We sought to investigate APP metabolism and Aβ production simultaneously under more physiological conditions in vivo and in vitro using cultured rat cortical neurons and live pigs. We found in cultured neurons that both APP and Aβ are secreted rapidly and at extremely high rates into the extracellular space (2-4 molecules/neuron/s for Aβ). Little APP is degraded outside of the pathway that leads to extracellular release. Two metabolic pools of APP are identified, one that is metabolized extremely rapidly (t1/2;) = 2.2 h), and another, surface pool, composed of both synaptic and extrasynaptic elements, that turns over very slowly. Aβ release and accumulation in the extracellular medium can be accounted for stoichiometrically by the extracellular release of β-cleaved forms of the APP ectodomain. Two α-cleavages of APP occur for every β-cleavage. Consistent with the results seen in cultured neurons, an extremely high rate of Aβ production and secretion from the brain was seen in juvenile pigs. In summary, our experiments show an enormous and rapid production and extracellular release of Aβ and the soluble APP ectodomain. A small, slowly metabolized, surface pool of full-length APP is also identified.     

GSK-3β在阿尔茨海默症病理特征形成中的作用

糖原合成酶激酶3β(glycogen synthase kinase-3β,GSK-3β)是糖原合成酶激酶3的一种亚型。GSK-3β不仅参与淀粉样蛋白质前体(amyloid precursor protein,APP)代谢,还在tau蛋白过度磷酸化过程中发挥作用,GSK-3β表达及活性的异常会导致神经元细胞的凋亡。APP异常代谢和tau蛋白异常磷酸化是阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease,AD)发展的重要因素,因此GSK-3β可能与AD的病理变化密切相关,明确其在AD中的作用及其机制对AD的治疗有重要的意义。     

Pivotal role of the RanBP9-cofilin pathway in Aβ-induced apoptosis and neurodegeneration

Neurodegeneration associated with amyloid β (Aβ) peptide accumulation, synaptic loss, neuroinflammation, tauopathy, and memory impairments encompass the pathophysiological features of Alzheimer's disease (AD). We previously reported that the scaffolding protein RanBP9, which is overall increased in brains of AD patients, simultaneously promotes Aβ generation and focal adhesion disruption by accelerating the endocytosis of amyloid precursor protein (APP) and β1-integrin, respectively. Here, we show that RanBP9 protein levels are increased by fourfold in FAD mutant APP transgenic mice. Accordingly, RanBP9 transgenic mice demonstrate significantly increased synapse loss, neurodegeneration, gliosis, and spatial memory deficits. RanBP9 overexpression promotes apoptosis and potentiates Aβ-induced neurotoxicity independent of its capacity to promote Aβ generation. Conversely, RanBP9 reduction by siRNA or gene dosage mitigates Aβ-induced neurotoxicity. Importantly, RanBP9 activates/dephosphorylates cofilin, a key regulator of actin dynamics and mitochondria-mediated apoptosis, and siRNA knockdown of cofilin abolishes both Aβ and RanBP9-induced apoptosis. These findings implicate the RanBP9-cofilin pathway as critical therapeutic targets not only for stemming Aβ generation but also antagonizing Aβ-induced neurotoxicity.     

Interplay between VGLUT isoforms and endophilin A1 regulates neurotransmitter release and short-term plasticity

Vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUTs) are essential for filling synaptic vesicles with glutamate and mammals express three VGLUT isoforms (VGLUT1-3) with distinct spatiotemporal expression patterns. Here, we find that neurons expressing VGLUT1 have lower release probability and less short-term depression than neurons expressing VGLUT2 or VGLUT3. Investigation of the underlying mechanism identified endophilin A1 as a positive regulator of exocytosis whose expression levels are positively correlated with release efficiency and showed that the differences in release efficiency between VGLUT1- and VGLUT2-expressing neurons are due to VGLUT1's ability to bind endophilin A1 and inhibit endophilin-induced enhancement of release probability.