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1.
芍药的访花昆虫和传粉昆虫   总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2  
红雨  刘强 《昆虫知识》2004,41(5):449-454
20 0 0~ 2 0 0 2年对内蒙古赤峰市高格斯台罕乌拉自然保护区内野生芍药 (PaeonialactifloraPall.)和内蒙古农校芍药园内栽培品种芍药的访花昆虫进行调查 ,经整理鉴定有 2 9种 ,自然保护区内芍药的访花昆虫种类有 1 7种 ,芍药园内的访花昆虫有 1 7种。根据传粉行为和数量的比较确定了自然保护区内主要传粉昆虫为丽斑芫菁、黄胫宽花天牛、黑胫宽花天牛、短毛斑金龟、饥星花金龟、白星花金龟和大淡脉隧蜂 ;芍药园内的主要传粉昆虫为意大利蜜蜂、棕边管食蚜蝇、长尾管食蚜蝇、大淡脉隧蜂、灰带管食蚜蝇和小淡脉隧蜂。  相似文献   

2.
濒危植物独花兰的传粉生物学初步观察   总被引:9,自引:0,他引:9  
独花兰(Changnienia amoena Chien)为我国特有的单种属植物,近年因生境破碎化和过度采挖,其野生资源日渐减少。迄今对独花兰极为有限的研究表明,其结实率很低或根本不结实,其传粉媒介也一直未被发现。2002年3~4月,我们对神农架2个移植居群和5个天然居群进行了传粉生物学的定点观察,发现雌性三条熊蜂(Bombus (Diversobombus)trifasciatus Smith)、仿熊蜂(Bombus (Tricornibombus) imitator Pittion)和蜜蜂均访问独花兰,但只有二条熊蜂身体粘有花粉块,是独花兰的有效传粉者。三条熊蜂的访问频率很低,在113h的观察中只有9次访问,但在一个天然居群(population 3)中曾观察到一天4次的最高访问频率;访问主要在12:00~15:00出现,但在花上停留时间很短,不超过10s。在末被授粉的情况下,独花兰花朵大约3周后自然枯萎,但受粉后3、4d内即出现~系列形态和颜色的变化,包括花梗逐渐伸长,子房在花梗逐渐停止伸长后开始膨大等,表明花梗伸长可作为结实(授粉成功)的指标。人工授粉实验表明,自花、异花受粉后花梗均伸长,而套袋隔离花的则花梗不伸长,说明独花兰是自交亲和的异交种,需要昆虫传粉。根据传粉者的访问频率、居群中果实的分布,尤其是花距内无花蜜等特征,我们认为独花兰是一种欺骗性传粉的兰花。相对于其他欺骗性传粉的兰花,独花兰的自然结实率并不很低(26.98%),这与居群规模小会提高欺骗性传粉兰花结实率这一观点吻合。花粉块的输出数远高于结实数,这说明独花兰存在一定的花粉浪费。  相似文献   

3.
露蕊乌头(毛茛科)不同海拔居群的传粉生态学   总被引:10,自引:0,他引:10  
对青藏高原东北部两个不同海拔地点(互助,2460m和海北,3200m)的露蕊乌头Aconitum gymnandrum的传粉生态学进行了比较研究。研究结果表明高海拔居群的单花花期、雄性期持续时间、雌性期持续时间比低海拔长。露蕊乌头不存在无融合生殖现象,尽管高度自交亲和,但产生种子必须依赖传粉媒介。熊蜂是露蕊乌头的主要传粉昆虫,两个居群均存在传粉限制。熊蜂取食花蜜为主,在同一个花序上的访问顺序以由下向上为主,但在互助居群和海北居群有3.9%和2.7%的访花是由上向下进行的。统计发现有37.7%和29.3%的访问行为发生在同一植株内;因此,同株异花传粉造成的自交在露蕊乌头中仍然不能避免。低海拔居群的熊蜂种类和访花频率均高于高海拔居群,但自然状态下两个居群的结实率并没有显著差异。高海拔露蕊乌头居群可能具有较长的柱头持续时间,从而补偿了由于访花频率低带来的结实率降低。  相似文献   

4.
矮牡丹传粉生物学的初步研究   总被引:33,自引:2,他引:31  
对山西省南部矮牡丹3个居群连续两年的野外观察和实验研究表明,共有5种蜂和4种甲虫参 与矮牡丹的传粉。电镜观察和人工控制昆虫传粉试验证明,蜂类,特别是地蜂类是矮牡丹的主要传粉 者,而甲虫类只是一种不稳定的传粉者。矮牡丹花无蜜液,但可散发气味,主要以花粉吸引昆虫。矮牡 丹不存在无融合生殖,也没有自动自花结实现象,但同株异花能产生少量种子,具微弱的自交性。在花 少的居群中自然结实率与人工异交结实率近相等。矮牡丹的结实率低,平均只有近1/4的胚珠发育成种子。  相似文献   

5.
草豆蔻传粉生物学的研究   总被引:5,自引:0,他引:5       下载免费PDF全文
比较研究了花柱卷曲性植物草豆蔻 Alpinia hainanensis两种表型(上举型和下垂型)的传粉生物学特性。结果表明:草豆蔻的花柱卷曲运动节律与其他已报道的山姜属Alpinia植物基本一致,而下垂型花的花柱卷曲运动明显滞后于上举型花约2 h。草豆蔻的花柱卷曲运动中存在一些不同步的现象,甚至在同一花序上的两朵花的花柱运动节律亦会表现出不一致的现象,但上举型花的花药开裂时间却严格同步,都发生在同类型个体的柱头全部位于花药上方之后进行。草豆蔻上举型花的花蜜分泌量、单花花粉量、花粉/胚珠比率(P/O)均明显比下垂型花多,而两种表型的胚珠数、花蜜糖含量、氨基酸含量无显著差异。在草豆蔻的单花期内不同时间段进行人工授粉,上举型花在其柱头位于花药下方时进行人工授粉,其结实率明显比柱头位于花药上方时人工授粉的处理高,下垂型花则没有显著差异。在自然居群中,草豆蔻的主要传粉者是无垫蜂Ameglla sp.和两种木蜂Xylocopa sp.,但存在传粉者不足而影响结实率的现象。完全套袋、去雄和去雌(去柱头)处理的均不结实,表明草豆蔻中不存在无融合生殖、主动自花授粉和滞后自交的生殖保障现象。而人工自交和异交均具有较高的结实率,表明草豆蔻为自交亲和植物。草豆蔻的繁育系统是具花柱卷曲性运动的异花授粉的交配系统。  相似文献   

6.
以陕西镇坪化龙山地区的东亚七筋姑自然居群为对象,通过重力玻片法、套袋法和人工授粉对其进行连续的传粉生物学观察和研究,以明确其散粉规律和繁育系统.结果表明,东亚七筋姑的花期在五月中下旬,单花花期2~3 d,整个花序的花期随花序大小的不同而异,一般为3~7 d;东亚七筋姑为虫媒传粉,其访花昆虫大多为小型昆虫,主要种类有小型甲虫、蚁类和蝇类等;东亚七筋姑自花传粉是可育的,存在异花传粉,不存在无融合生殖,自然条件下结籽率为58%,人工异株异花授粉结籽率为82%.可见,东亚七筋姑的繁育系统为兼性异交类型,需要传粉者.  相似文献   

7.
由于黑果枸杞(Lycium ruthenicum)果实具有重要的保健价值,近年来倍受关注,但其野生资源正遭受着前所未有的采伐压力。目前关于影响黑果枸杞果实产量的有性生殖过程研究较少,本实验对新疆库尔勒地区6个不同生境的野生黑果枸杞居群开展了繁殖生态学观察,并对各居群的访花频率、访花昆虫种类、柱头花粉落置、胚珠数、座果率、结实率和单株果实产量等指标进行了比较分析。结果表明,访花频率与结实率、座果率具有显著正相关关系,说明传粉者是限制黑果枸杞有性生殖的关键因素之一;传粉者种类越丰富的居群其有性生殖产出越高,揭示了传粉昆虫的多样性和丰富度是影响黑果枸杞繁殖成功的重要限制因子。此外,和静县华侨农场和焉耆县霍拉山河沟的黑果枸杞居群生殖产出明显与其传粉成功率相偏离,进一步分析表明,风沙侵蚀和人为采伐对植株的破坏是影响这两个居群果实产量的重要原因。本研究结果对于野生黑果枸杞居群的保护及其人工规模栽培提供了重要的参考依据。  相似文献   

8.
黄河三角洲柽柳的开花特性及传粉生态学研究   总被引:7,自引:0,他引:7  
野外定位观测了柽柳(TamarixchinensisLour.)的开花物侯、开花动态、访花者的种类、行为和访花频率,并对其繁育系统、花粉-胚珠比(P/O)、花粉活力进行了检测。结果表明,柽柳单朵花的花期仅1d,P/O为390.9±81.0,繁育系统属于自交亲和、需要传粉者的类型。花的结构和开花式样适合以食蚜蝇为主的多种昆虫传粉。自然条件下的结实率为95.23%。柽柳的果实成熟期较短(15d),整个居群有长达几个月的花期,开花数目众多,因此能产生大量的种子,在适宜条件下会形成大片的柽柳灌丛。  相似文献   

9.
桂林唇柱苣苔传粉生物学及生殖配置研究   总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1  
对桂林唇柱苣苔在不同生境下(YZ居群,半野生,林下裸露岩石上;DB居群,洞穴岩石上)的生殖生态学进行了比较研究。结果表明:(1)桂林唇柱苣苔的花期为2月下旬至4月中旬,受环境因素的影响,单花期在DB居群(16~24 d)明显长于YZ居群(10~17 d);(2)两个居群的P/O比差异显著,花粉量比胚珠量有更明显的变化,这可能与其生境有关;(3)桂林唇柱苣苔属于兼性异交系统,不存在无融合生殖现象;(4)传粉和种子后熟阶段均存在限制,致使各种处理的结实率均处在较低的水平(<45%);(5)白颊尤垫蜂与小蜂类(DB居群)或蜜蜂(YZ居群)为桂林唇柱苣苔较为稳定的传粉者;(6)桂林唇柱苣苔植株个体越大,花期繁殖投入就越高,繁殖分配越低;(7)与DB居群相比,YZ居群可利用资源较为丰富、植株生物量较大,因此其花期投入繁殖也较高,而DB居群将更多的资源分配给营养器官,从而提高了对资源获取能力。  相似文献   

10.
独花兰(Changnienia amoena Chien)为我国特有的单种属植物,近年因生境破碎化和过度采挖,其野生资源日渐减少.迄今对独花兰极为有限的研究表明,其结实率很低或根本不结实,其传粉媒介也一直未被发现.2002年3~4月,我们对神农架2个移植居群和5个天然居群进行了传粉生物学的定点观察,发现雌性三条熊蜂(Bombus(Diversobombus)trifasciatus Smith)、仿熊蜂(Bombus(Tricornibombus)imitator Pittion)和蜜蜂均访问独花兰,但只有三条熊蜂身体粘有花粉块,是独花兰的有效传粉者.三条熊蜂的访问频率很低,在113 h的观察中只有9次访问,但在一个天然居群(population 3)中曾观察到一天4次的最高访问频率;访问主要在12:00~15:00出现,但在花上停留时间很短,不超过10 s.在未被授粉的情况下,独花兰花朵大约3周后自然枯萎,但受粉后3、4 d内即出现一系列形态和颜色的变化,包括花梗逐渐伸长,子房在花梗逐渐停止伸长后开始膨大等,表明花梗伸长可作为结实(授粉成功)的指标.人工授粉实验表明,自花、异花受粉后花梗均伸长,而套袋隔离花的则花梗不伸长,说明独花?兰是自交亲和的异交种,需要昆虫传粉.根据传粉者的访问频率、居群中果实的分布,尤其是花距内无花蜜等特征,我们认为独花兰是种欺骗性传粉的兰花.相对于其他欺骗性传粉的兰花,独花兰的自然结实率并不很低(26.98%),这与居群规模小会提高欺骗性传粉兰花结实率这一观点吻合.花粉块的输出数远高于结实数,这说明独花兰存在一定的花粉浪费.  相似文献   

11.
Crop‐wild hybridization has been documented in many cultivated species, but the ecological and genetic factors that influence the likelihood or rate that cultivar alleles will introgress into wild populations are poorly understood. Seed predation is one factor that could mitigate the spread of otherwise advantageous cultivar alleles into the wild by reducing seedling recruitment of crop‐like individuals in hybrid populations. Seed predation has previously been linked to several seed characters that differ between cultivated and wild sunflower, such as seed size and oil content. In this study, seed morphological and nutritional characters were measured in a segregating population of sunflower crop‐wild hybrids and wild and cultivated lines. Seed predation rates among lines were then assessed in the field. The relationship between seed predation and seed characters was investigated and quantitative trait loci (QTL) were mapped for all traits. There was no effect of seed type (hybrid vs. parents) on seed predation, although a trend toward more early predation of wild seeds was observed. Within the hybrids, seed predators preferred seeds that contained more oil and energy but were lower in fibre. The relationship between seed predation and oil content was supported by co‐localized QTL for these traits on one linkage group. These results suggest that oil content may be a more important determinant of seed predation than seed size and provide molecular genetic evidence for this relationship. The cultivar allele was also found to increase predation at all QTL, indicating that post‐dispersal seed predation may mitigate the spread of cultivar alleles into wild populations.  相似文献   

12.
The movement of pollen between crop and wild sunflowers (both Helianthus annuus) has led to concerns about the possible introduction of crop transgenes into wild populations. The persistence of crop traits in wild populations will depend in part on the relative fitness of crop-wild hybrid vs. wild plants. Using seeds from two large experimental field plots, we found that seeds produced by crop-wild plants were twice the size of wild seeds and differed in coloration. Head diameter, date of flowering, identity of mother plant, and levels of predispersal predation explained some variation in mean seed size. We hypothesized that postdispersal vertebrate seed predation would be affected by seed size, with hybrid seeds preferentially eaten. In each of three field trials, significantly more hybrid seeds were eaten (62% of hybrid seed; 42% of wild seed). Within the category of wild seeds, larger seeds were preferentially eaten; however among hybrid seeds, predation was not significantly related to seed size. In this study, differential predation thus reduces hybrid fitness and would presumably slow the spread of transgenes into wild populations.  相似文献   

13.
Three experiments to investigate the effect of pollination by blowflies (Calliphora and Lucilia spp.) and honeybees (Apis mellifera) on seed yield and crossing level were made using a mixture of plants from two open-pollinated cultivars of onions (Allium cepa) in breeders' cages. No consistent differences were found between pollinators. In two experiments, fly pollination gave significantly higher yields than bee pollination but in the third, bee pollination gave slightly more seed. Crossing between cultivars, assessed by progeny testing on one cultivar, varied between 22-7 and 55-9%. Differences in crossing level attributable to the pollinators were not consistent and were not or only just statistically significant, but there were significant and substantial differences between the experiments themselves. Where more umbels were produced by the red-bulbed cultivar than by the yellow, higher crossing levels were found in the yellow cultivar. The highest crossing levels were found in the only experiment where insects were not introduced until peak flowering time, but where seed yield was comparatively low. Crossing levels were lowest where the umbel numbers were approximately equal. Individual umbels studied showed that while seed set was usually heaviest at and just before the mid-flowering date, this period could correspond with the lowest levels of crossing during the flowering period, particularly if flowering of the two cultivars was not completely synchronous. In field plots, approximately 75% of crossed seeds sown survived to give harvestable bulbs, but fewer than 50% of selfed seeds did so. In an experiment in which crossing levels from different pollinators were similar but survival levels differed significantly, it was deduced that bees performed more crossing within a cultivar than flies.  相似文献   

14.
Pastinaca sativa (wild parsnip) produces seeds on the primary, secondary, and tertiary umbels of the flowering stalk. Within plants, variation in seed weight is about twofold. Secondary and tertiary seed weight is 73% and 50% of primary seed weight, respectively. Maximum variation in seed weight between plants is sixfold when tertiary seeds from a small plant are compared to primary seeds from a large plant. Within an umbel order, variation in seed weight between plants is correlated with plant size. Under autumn germinating conditions in the laboratory, final germination of seeds from different umbel orders does not differ but smaller seeds germinate more rapidly than larger seeds. Under spring germination conditions in the laboratory, significantly more primary and secondary seeds germinate than tertiary seeds and the rate of germination is independent of seed weight. Field germination of seeds from different umbel orders produces similar results except that in the spring both secondary and tertiary seed germination is lower than that of primary seeds. These results suggest that with respect to seed germination characteristics small seeds may have a competitive advantage over large seeds in the autumn because they germinate more quickly, but in the spring small seeds are at a disadvantage because they have lower overall germination. Because most germination in the field occurs in the spring, population recruitment from small seeds is likely to be substanially less than that from large seeds.  相似文献   

15.
  • Self‐pollination by geitonogamy is likely in self‐compatible plants that simultaneously expose a large number of flowers to pollinators. However, progeny of these plants is often highly allogamous. Although mechanisms to increase cross‐pollination have been identified and studied, their relative importance has rarely been addressed simultaneously in plant populations.
  • We used Rosmarinus officinalis to explore factors that influence the probability of self‐fertilisation due to geitonogamy or that purge its consequences, focusing on their effects on seed germination and allogamy rate. We experimentally tested the effect of geitonogamy on the proportion of filled seeds and how it influences germination rate. During two field seasons, we studied how life history and flowering traits of individuals influence seed germination and allogamy rates of their progeny in wild populations at the extremes of the altitudinal range. The traits considered were plant size, population density, duration of the flowering season, number of open flowers, flowering synchrony among individuals within populations and proportion of male‐sterile flowers.
  • We found that most seeds obtained experimentally from self‐pollination were apparently healthy but empty, and that the proportion of filled seeds drove the differences in germination rate between self‐ and cross‐pollination experiments. Plants from wild populations consistently had low germination rate and high rate of allogamy, as determined with microsatellites. Germination rate related positively to the length of the flowering season, flowering synchrony and the ratio of male‐sterile flowers, whereas the rate of allogamous seedlings was positively related only to the ratio of male‐sterile flowers.
  • Rosemary plants purge most of the inbreeding caused by its pollination system by aborting the seeds. This study showed that the rates of seed germination and allogamy of the seedlings depend on a complex combination of factors that vary in space and time. Male sterility of flowers, length of the flowering season and flowering synchrony of individuals within populations all favour high rates of cross‐pollination, therefore increasing germination and allogamy rates. Flowering traits appear to be highly plastic and respond to local and seasonal conditions.
  相似文献   

16.
Magnussen LS  Hauser TP 《Heredity》2007,99(2):185-192
Many cultivated plant species are able to hybridize with related wild plants. However, it is not clear whether their hybrids are able to survive and reproduce outside managed fields, and if cultivar genes introgress into wild populations. In areas where wild carrots co-occur with carrot root-crops, pollen and seeds may flow from two different sources in the fields to the surrounding wild populations: from pure cultivar plants that occasionally flower, and from flowering 'bolters' that originate from hybridizations between wild (male) and cultivated carrots (female) in seed production fields in warmer regions of the world. To test whether hybrids are formed and survive in wild Danish populations, and whether prolonged hybridization has led to introgression of cultivar genes, we collected leaf material from adult individuals growing close to carrot fields and analysed their genotypic composition by AFLP. Four hybrids were identified among the 71 plants analysed, and these were most likely F(2) or backcross individuals, sired by pollen from hybrid bolters. Wild populations close to fields were genetically somewhat more similar to cultivars than wild populations far from fields, suggesting that neutral or beneficial cultivar alleles can introgress into the wild gene pool. Despite generations of improvement and adaptation of cultivar carrots to highly managed field conditions, hybrids can thus sometimes survive in wild populations close to carrot fields, and their genes transfer to wild populations by introgression.  相似文献   

17.
为了寻找保护和恢复甘南红景天种群的有效途径,本文分析了甘南红景天的繁育系统、生殖过程、开花物候特征及影响生殖成功的主要因子.结果表明:甘南红景天为雌雄异株,雄花在花芽分化初期为两性植株,但随着花的不断发育,雌蕊的胚囊发育到一定阶段时败育,两性植株基本仅执行雄性功能,种群繁殖为异交,以风媒传粉方式为主,种群花期出现在全年降雨和气温较高的季节.6月初现蕾,6月中旬开花,7月上旬进入盛花期,花期在36 d左右,8月下旬果实成熟.两性植株略早于雌花开放,花期(10.2 d)大于雌性植株(8.4 d).由于部分雌花不易授粉,部分花蕾、胚珠损失,1~3年的幼龄植株几乎不开花结实,群落中只有11%的植株开花结实,种子自然繁殖率极低,约为2%.从花蕾到开花,雌性单株有20.0%~25.1%的花蕾损失; 从开花到结实,单株51.1%~65.0%的花败育;至种子成熟,仅10.1%~21.0%的胚珠发育成种子.雌性单株平均种子产量为158.1粒,人工条件下种子发芽率为81.5%,幼苗第一年的成活率为36.0%.表明种子质量不是导致甘南红景天濒危的原因,而花粉限制、种子产量和幼苗的成活率是真正影响其生殖成功和导致濒危的主要生殖生态学因素.  相似文献   

18.
Variation in sex expression, flowering pattern, and seed production was studied in the self-compatible perennial herb Geranium maculatum in Illinois and Indiana. In a survey of eight populations, female (male-sterile) plants were found in seven (frequencies ranging from 0.5% to 24.3% [median 4.2%]), and intermediate plants (with partly reduced male function) were found in all populations. Gender variation and sexual differences in reproductive characters were studied in detail in two populations. One population consisted of 5% female, 27% intermediate, and 68% hermaphrodite plants; the other consisted of 1% female, 20% intermediate, and 79% hermaphrodite plants. Females produced smaller flowers and began flowering earlier than hermaphrodites. Intermediates produced flowers of an intermediate size and began flowering as early as females. Females and hermaphrodites did not differ in flower number, vegetative size, flowering frequency, survival, or seed size. However, females produced 1.6 times more seeds than hermaphrodites. Intermediates produced 1.3–1.6 times more seeds than hermaphrodites. Some between-year variation in sex expression was observed. Hand-pollination with outcross pollen produced two to four times as many seeds as hand-pollination with self-pollen. A lower outcrossing rate in hermaphrodites than in females may at least partly explain the lower seed set in hermaphrodites. The higher seed production of females, and possibly the high fecundity of the intermediates, should contribute to the maintenance of this sexual polymorphism.  相似文献   

19.
Akiyama R  Ågren J 《PloS one》2012,7(1):e30015

Background

The effect of herbivory on plant fitness varies widely. Understanding the causes of this variation is of considerable interest because of its implications for plant population dynamics and trait evolution. We experimentally defoliated the annual herb Arabidopsis thaliana in a natural population in Sweden to test the hypotheses that (a) plant fitness decreases with increasing damage, (b) tolerance to defoliation is lower before flowering than during flowering, and (c) defoliation before flowering reduces number of seeds more strongly than defoliation during flowering, but the opposite is true for effects on seed size.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In a first experiment, between 0 and 75% of the leaf area was removed in May from plants that flowered or were about to start flowering. In a second experiment, 0, 25%, or 50% of the leaf area was removed from plants on one of two occasions, in mid April when plants were either in the vegetative rosette or bolting stage, or in mid May when plants were flowering. In the first experiment, seed production was negatively related to leaf area removed, and at the highest damage level, also mean seed size was reduced. In the second experiment, removal of 50% of the leaf area reduced seed production by 60% among plants defoliated early in the season at the vegetative rosettes, and by 22% among plants defoliated early in the season at the bolting stage, but did not reduce seed output of plants defoliated one month later. No seasonal shift in the effect of defoliation on seed size was detected.

Conclusions/Significance

The results show that leaf damage may reduce the fitness of A. thaliana, and suggest that in this population leaf herbivores feeding on plants before flowering should exert stronger selection on defence traits than those feeding on plants during flowering, given similar damage levels.  相似文献   

20.
A population of the alvar race of the perennial herb, Silene uniflora (Caryophyllaceae), which grows on thin soils in open alvar habitats on the Baltic island of Oland SE Sweden, was found to have an extended and more or less bimodal flowering phenology Large individuals produced flowers during both periods, while small, and presumably young, individuals only produced flowers in either of the two periods, or in part of both In the early flowering period plants were heavily infested by the seed-predatory larvae of a noctuid moth, Hadena confusa , but in the late flowering period only a small proportion of the fruits was attacked by the seed predators The proportion of flowers developing into fruits was consistently high throughout the season Both the number of seeds per capsule and the mass of seeds decreased over the flowering season However, the germination success of early and late seeds did not differ Thus, although differing in number of seeds, both early and late flowers contributed to individual reproductive success Large individuals started to flower early in the season and despite their high loss of seeds in the early part of the summer they contributed a larger number of seeds to the seed pool than smaller and later-flowering individuals Although selection was acting to favour later flowering during a year with high early seed predation, consistency of date of flower initiation and of relative predation impact on individuals across years was low suggesting that recurrent selection by seed predators is weak Seed predation, although heavy, is therefore judged to be unlikely to cause a significant evolutionary response on flowering phenology in this plant  相似文献   

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