The zoophilic fruitfly Phortica variegata: morphology, ecology and biological niche

Abstract.  Flies belonging to the subfamily Steganinae (Drosophilidae) display unusual zoophilic feeding habits at the adult and/or larval stage. Phortica variegata (Fallén) feeds on tears or eye liquid around the eyes of humans and carnivores. When feeding it is a potential vector of Thelazia callipaeda (Railliet and Henry) eyeworms. Adult and larval stages of this fly may be easily confused with other species belonging to the same genus, and little is known on the biology and ecology of P. variegata . In April–November 2005, a total of 969 P. variegata were collected in an area with a high prevalence of canine thelaziosis. The number of flies collected weekly was then related to climatic and environmental parameters (e.g. temperature, relative humidity and total rainfall) recorded daily at the collection site. The highest number of Phortica were collected during July–August. The sex ratio (number of males : females) rose from ∼ 0.5 during May–July, to ∼ 3.0 in August and 181 during September–October. Distributional data, representing 242 sites at which P. variegata has been collected in Europe, were analysed using a desktop implementation of the genetic algorithm for rule-set prediction (GARP) to model ecological requirements across Europe, as well as in Italy. P. variegata is shown to be mainly active at 20–25 °C and 50–75% RH. The ecological niche model suggests with a high degree of confidence that large areas of Europe are likely to represent suitable habitat for this species, mostly concentrated in central Europe. The results reported here contribute basic knowledge on the ecology and geographical distribution of P. variegata flies, which will be fundamental to gaining a better understanding of their role as vectors of human and animal pathogens.     

A large‐scale molecular phylogeny of flesh flies (Diptera: Sarcophagidae)

The available data for Sarcophagidae in GenBank were analysed in order to reconstruct the most comprehensive phylogeny to date. GenBank was explored for nine markers that are commonly used in various molecular and phylogenetic studies of flesh flies. We obtained data for 187 species and constructed an aligned dataset with 9241 characters. However, the matrix suffered from 74% missing data due to a low number of sequences for some markers and in most of the cases only short fragments of the analysed genes were available. The reconstructed tree was taxonomically biased towards the subfamilies Paramacronychiinae (12% of the described species) and Sarcophaginae (8.6% of the described species) and specifically the genus Sarcophaga. The third subfamily Miltogramminae was represented by only 0.7% of described species. Moreover, about half of the included species were of forensic importance, while the percentage of such species in the entire family was estimated at 7%. Many nodes had very low support, so in order to increase the support and thereby identify a ‘core topology’, we pruned ‘rogue’ taxa and applied different substitution models. Both strategies improved support considerably, although some nodes still were left unresolved. An analysis of the distribution of bootstrap values across chronograms showed that the weakest phylogenetic signal is restricted to that part of the tree which coincides with the onset of rapid radiations mainly within the genus Sarcophaga. Our study is concordant with phylogenies obtained by other authors, with the most noteworthy exception being the subfamily Paramacronychiinae emerging as paraphyletic with regard to the Miltogramminae, which is in strong conflict with morphological evidence. We discuss the new findings in the light of traditional taxonomical classifications of Sarcophagidae and recent molecular studies.     

Phylogenetic relationships and biodiversity in Hylids (Anura: Hylidae) from French Guiana

We evaluated two biodiversity criteria, higher taxonomic diversity and phylogenetic diversity in French Guiana. For this, we used a recent assessment of the knowledge accumulated since 30 years of study on the amphibian species currently known in French Guiana. We focused on two well-represented genera, Hyla and Scinax, belonging to the subfamily Hylinae. We used partial sequences of two mitochondrial genes (16S rDNA and 12S rDNA, 813 bp) and two nuclear genes (tyrosinase and 18S rRNA, 1590 bp) covering a total of 2403 bp. According to the high bootstrap support in phylogenetic analysis of the complete dataset, the genus Scinax is a homophyletic clade formed by two species groups (rubra and rostrata) in French Guiana. The genus Hyla was confirmed to be a paraphyletic group formed by two species groups as well (30 chromosomes and the 'gladiator frogs'). We confirmed that these genera should be taxonomically reconsidered. Moreover, at the genus, subfamily and family levels, the use of only morphological characters or only molecular DNA markers would hamper estimations of biodiversity. Thus, we strongly advise the combined use of both morphology and molecular data (nuclear and mitochondrial markers).     

Phylogeny of Drosophila and related genera: conflict between molecular and anatomical analyses

Drosophila species are extensively used in biological research; yet, important phylogenetic relationships within the genus and with related genera remain unresolved. The combined data for three genes (Adh, Sod, and Gpdh) statistically resolves outstanding issues. We define the genus Drosophila inclusively so as to include Scaptomyza and Zaprionus (considered distinct genera in the taxonomy of Wheeler, 1981) but excluding Scaptodrosophila. The genus Drosophila so defined is monophyletic. The subgenus Sophophora (including the melanogaster, obscura, and willistoni groups) is monophyletic and the sister clade to all other Drosophila subgenera. The Hawaiian Drosophila (including Scaptomyza) is a monophyletic group, but the subgenus Drosophila is not monophyletic, because the immigrans group is more closely related to the subgenus Hirtodrosophila than to other species of the subgenus Drosophila, such as the virilis and repleta groups.     

Phylogenetic classification of the Drosophilidae Rondani (Diptera): the role of morphology in the postgenomic era

Molecular sequences now overwhelm morphology in phylogenetic inference. Nonetheless, most molecular studies are conducted on a limited number of taxa, as DNA rarely can be analysed from old museum types or fossils. During the last 20 years, more than 150 molecular studies have challenged the current phylogenetic classification of the family Drosophilidae Rondani based on morphological characters. Most studies concerned a single genus, Drosophila Fallén, and included only few representative species from 17 out of the 78 genera of the family. Therefore, these molecular studies were unable to provide an alternative classification scheme. A supermatrix analysis of seven nuclear and one mitochondrial genes (8248 bp) for 33 genera was conducted using outgroups from one calyptrate and four ephydroid families. The Bayesian phylogeny was consistent with previous molecular studies including whole genome sequences and divided the Drosophilidae into four monophyletic clades. Morphological characters, mostly male genitalia, then were compared thoroughly between the four clades and homologous character states were identified. These states were then checked for 70 genera and a revised phylogenetic, family‐group classification for the Drosophilidae is proposed. Two genera –Cladochaeta Coquillett and Diathoneura Duda – of the tribe Cladochaetini Grimaldi are transferred to the family Ephydridae. The Drosophilidae is divided into two subfamilies: Steganinae Hendel (30 genera) and Drosophilinae Rondani (43 genera). A further two genera, Apacrochaeta Duda and Sphyrnoceps de Meijere, are incertae sedis, and Palmophila Grimaldi, is synonymized with Drosophila syn.n. The Drosophilinae is subdivided into two tribes: the re‐elevated Colocasiomyini Okada (nine genera) and Drosophilini Okada. The paraphyly of the genus Drosophila was not resolved to avoid affecting the binomina of important laboratory model species; however, its subgeneric classification was revised in light of molecular and morphological data. Three subgenera, namely Chusqueophila Brncic, Phloridosa Sturtevant and Psilodorha Okada, were synonymized with the subgenus Drosophila (Drosophila) Fallén syns.n. Among the 45 species groups and 5 species complexes of Drosophila (Drosophila), 22 groups and 1 complex were transferred to the subgenus Drosophila (Siphlodora) Patterson & Mainland and 6 groups, 2 species subgroups and 3 complexes are considered incertae sedis within the genus Drosophila. Different morphological characters provide different signals at different phylogenetic scales: thoracic characters (wing venation and presternal shape) discriminate families; grasping and erection‐related characters discriminate subfamilies to tribes; whereas phallic paraphyses, i.e. auxiliary intromittent organs, discriminate genera and Drosophila subgenera. The study shows the necessity of analysing morphological characters within a molecular phylogenetic framework to translate molecular phylogenies into taxonomically‐comprehensive classifications.     

Phylogenetic relationships in the Lejeuneaceae (Hepaticae) inferred using ITS sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA

Sequences of the ITS1–5.8S–ITS2 region of nuclear ribosomal DNA were generated for 12 species from 9 genera of Lejeuneaceae and a single species of Jubulaceae (outgroup). The taxon sampling of Lejeuneaceae included representatives of the two widely recognized subfamilies, Lejeuneoideae and Ptychanthoideae. The molecular dataset was analysed independently and in combination with a morphological dataset. The nrITS dataset and the combined dataset resulted in identical topologies. The genus Bryopteris, sometimes treated as a separate family Bryopteridaceae, is nested within the Lejeuneaceae subfamily Ptychanthoideae. Lejeuneaceae subfamily Lejeuneoideae proved to be paraphyletic with the tribe Lejeuneeae sister to Ptychanthoideae, albeit without significant bootstrap support. The tribes Brachiolejeuneeae and Cheilolejeuneeae of Lejeuneoideae, established recently based on morphological evidence, are well supported in bootstrap analyses both of the ITS and the combined molecular–morphological datasets. The results support classifications of Lejeuneaceae based on morphological data and demonstrate the usefulness of the ITS region for phylogenetic studies within or among closely related genera of Lejeuneaceae.     

Molecular Characterization of Gregarines from Sand Flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) and Description of Psychodiella n. g. (Apicomplexa: Gregarinida)

ABSTRACT. Sand fly and mosquito gregarines have been lumped for a long time in the single genus Ascogregarina and on the basis of their morphological characters and the lack of merogony been placed into the eugregarine family Lecudinidae. Phylogenetic analyses performed in this study clearly demonstrated paraphyly of the current genus Ascogregarina and revealed disparate phylogenetic positions of gregarines parasitizing mosquitoes and gregarines retrieved from sand flies. Therefore, we reclassified the genus Ascogregarina and created a new genus Psychodiella to accommodate gregarines from sand flies. The genus Psychodiella is distinguished from all other related gregarine genera by the characteristic localization of oocysts in accessory glands of female hosts, distinctive nucleotide sequences of the small subunit rDNA, and host specificity to flies belonging to the subfamily Phlebotominae. The genus comprises three described species: the type species for the new genus— Psychodiella chagasi ( Adler and Mayrink 1961 ) n. comb., Psychodiella mackiei ( Shortt and Swaminath 1927 ) n. comb., and Psychodiella saraviae ( Ostrovska, Warburg, and Montoya-Lerma 1990 ) n. comb. Its creation is additionally supported by sequencing data from other gregarine species originating from the sand fly Phlebotomus sergenti . In the evolutionary context, both genera of gregarines from mosquitoes ( Ascogregarina ) and sand flies ( Psychodiella ) have a close relationship to neogregarines; the genera represent clades distinct from the other previously sequenced gregarines.     

The Ericoideae and the southern African heathers

OLIVER, E. G. H., 1989. The Ericoideae and the southern African heathers. The subfamily Ericoideae (Ericaceae) containing the true heathers and heaths has been a group long recognized as a sound natural entity. With work on the southern African genera and species which comprise approximately 95% of the subfamily well in progress, a reassessment of the number of genera has become necessary because of the considerable variation recorded in, and the postulated polyphyletic origin of, the capsular genera. Changes envisaged will affect the whole concept of the heaths within Africa. The genus Philippia Klotzsch has been reduced to synonymy under Erica L. and it is shown that the case for a similar action is very strong for Blaeria L. and Ericinella Klotzsch. The position of the monotypic European genus, Bruckenthalia Reichb., is also affected but remains unresolved.     

Position of the genera Lycenchelys gill and Lycodapus gilbert in the family Zoarcidae (Perciformes: Zoarcoidei) inferred from molecular genetic analysis

Sequence variation ofthe mitochondrial COI, cytochrome b, and 16S RNA genes, as well as nuclear RNF213 gene was examined in the genera Lycenchelys and Lycodapus with the purpose of determination of their positions in the system of the family Zoarcidae. It was demonstrated that the genus Lycodapus was considerably closer to the generic group of Lycogramminae (Lycogrammoides, Bothrocara, Allolepis, Bothrocarhichthys) than the genus Lycenchelys. However, on the phylogenetic trees both of these genera were located in the clade of the subfamily Lycodinae. Genetic heterogeneity of the genus Lycenchelys, represented by two species groups differing in distribution patterns (northeastern Pacific and Antarctic) and showing more profound differences than the genera of subfamily Lycodinae, was demonstrated.     

Phylogenetic analyses of the rhipicephaline ticks indicate that the genus Rhipicephalus is paraphyletic

We inferred the phylogeny of 21 species and subspecies of ticks from the subfamilies Rhipicephalinae and Hyalomminae using cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) and 12S rRNA mitochondrial gene sequences. Two members of the subfamily Haemaphysalinae were used for outgroup reference. The largest rhipicephaline genus, Rhipicephalus, was represented by ticks from six of the species groups, the second largest genus, Dermacentor, by species from two of three of its subgenera, and the genus Boophilus by 3 of its 5 species. We analyzed the 12S and COI sequences separately and together; statistically significant incongruence between the 12S rDNA and the COI sequences was not detected in the combined dataset using the incongruence length difference test. The combined dataset provided greater phylogenetic resolution than the individual datasets, and although the 12S rDNA data had only 25% of the parsimony-informative characters, it provided half of the total partitioned Bremer support for the combined dataset. We present the first hypothesis of phylogenetic relationships among some species groups of Rhipicephalus but our most controversial result was that the genus Rhipicephalus is apparently paraphyletic, unless species of Boophilus are included in it. The species of Rhipicephalus most closely related to Boophilus spp. were from the R. pravus and R. evertsi species groups, which may implicate an African origin for this important group of ticks.