云南高黎贡山赧亢白眉长臂猿春季食谱及活动时间分配初探

从2007年3月9日至4月14日,调查了高黎贡山赧亢的白眉长臂猿的食性和时间分配,旨在为该物种的栖息地保护和食物资源的管理提供指导.观察时,将白眉长臂猿的行为分为取食、移动、休息3种活动类型,利用瞬时扫描取样法取样记录,并记录取食种类及部位.白眉长臂猿春季取食植物种类共有10种,其中果实类植物3种,果汁类植物1种,嫩叶类植物6种.相对其它灵长类而言,其春季的食物多样性较低.白眉长臂猿移动、休息和取食的时间分配分别为33%、35%和32%,较叶猴属动物休息少,移动多.赧亢的白眉长臂猿1天中有3个觅食高峰期,9:00～10:00为第1个觅食高峰;11:00～13:00为第2个觅食高峰;16:00～17:00为第3个觅食高峰.而孟加拉国 Lawachara 的白眉长臂猿仅在早上有两次觅食高峰.这种差异可能是不同区域的白眉长臂猿对环境的适应结果.     

高黎贡山赧亢白眉长臂猿食性及日取食量

通过确定白眉长臂猿的取食特征及日取食量,探讨不同个体间和春、秋季间日取食量是否存在差异,分析影响日取食量和取食特征的因素,为白眉长臂猿日能量需求及其营养容纳量研究奠定基础。2007—2008年春、秋季,在高黎贡山赧亢采用焦点动物取样法观察和记录数据。结果发现,白眉长臂猿取食36种食物的40个部位,其果实的食物单元、取食速度、单个鲜重值等取食特征不同于嫩叶。春、秋季白眉长臂猿每日取食果实量所占百分比最高、嫩叶所占百分比次之、茎和花所占百分比最低。春、秋季家群中雌猿的日取食量均高于雄猿。与家群的雌猿相比,独猿(♀)春季的日取食量稍高。在春季,独猿取食果实持续时间约为家群的2倍,而取食嫩叶的则与家群几乎相等。相同个体秋季的日取食量高于春季的,且春、秋季日取食各部位的量所占百分比也不同。分析结果表明,食性及日取食部位的量反映了白眉长臂猿选择食物的最基本策略。雌雄个体大小差异、能量消耗、食物特征、动物生理需求等因素影响白眉长臂猿的日取食量。白眉长臂猿取食持续时间与觅食树的食物资源量相关。     

高黎贡山大塘白眉长臂猿春季栖息地利用及与赧亢的比较

2007年3月9日～4月7日调查了高黎贡山大塘片区白眉长臂猿的生境利用情况.对1雌1雄 (均为成体) 家群和1只雌性独猿跟踪观察.设置利用样地和对照样地各30个,测量了4个定性因子和19个定量因子.判别分析结果显示,在大塘影响白眉长臂猿春季生境利用的关键因子是藤本密度和坡度2个因子;影响赧亢与大塘白眉长臂猿的则是距空旷地距离、竹子平均高度和距水源距离等3个因子.据地形因子分析结果,大塘和赧亢的白眉长臂猿对避风和趋阳坡有共同需求.比较两地白眉长臂猿对与植被结构有关的8个生态因子的利用结果提示,赧亢适宜白眉长臂猿栖息的生境呈破碎化分布,而大塘的植被均匀性和完整性较高.两地白眉长臂猿对优势乔木的选择都具有相同的外貌形态特征,树形高大、树冠连续、郁闭度高的乔木可为它们提供更多的移动路线、更广的活动空间和更好的隐蔽条件.白眉长臂猿对两个分布区林下竹灌层选择差异的原因一方面是人为干扰强度不同所致,另一方面是对林下竹灌层的利用方式不同.藤本是白眉长臂猿在乔木层与竹灌层之间活动的主要交通媒介和连接纽带.人为干扰强度的不同亦是导致两地白眉长臂猿生境利用差异的重要原因之一.     

放牧对布氏田鼠主要食物选择的影响

动物的食物选择受食物资源量、质量和喜好度决定。尽管放牧可减少鼠类的喜食植物的数量和质量,但其如何影响鼠类的食物选择尚不清楚。本研究于2014年5月至10月,在内蒙古锡林郭勒盟锡林浩特市毛登牧场的大型试验围栏内进行了布氏田鼠的食物选择实验。利用大型实验围栏内5年连续放牧处理所构建的植被变化条件,采用扣笼试验,调查了布氏田鼠对其三种主要植物的取食情况。研究发现：连续放牧后,糙隐子草的盖度增加,而羊草、克氏针茅盖度降低;糙隐子草的盖度显著高于羊草、克氏针茅,成为各季节的优势植物种类。放牧对布氏田鼠取食羊草、克氏针茅和糙隐子草的绝对取食频次均无显著影响。在季节上,布氏田鼠对克氏针茅和糙隐子草的取食在三个季节均无差异,但布氏田鼠对羊草取食的绝对频次夏季显著高于春季和秋季;布氏田鼠对三种植物的喜好程度依次为羊草>克氏针茅>糙隐子草,但季节和放牧因素对布氏田鼠对这三种植物的喜好度无显著影响。结果表明,布氏田鼠的食物选择及食物组成相对稳定,表现为其对放牧或季节因素造成的喜食植物资源量的变化具有很好的适应性,推测是其调整取食努力来实现食物组成的平衡。     

海南长臂猿破碎化生境中食物资源可利用性分析

食物种类及其可获得性是动物生存的基本条件,也是生境质量评价的重要指标。2013年1月至2014年7月,对海南长臂猿 (Nomascus hainanus) C群生境内食源植物种类、数量、食物可获得性及主要取食植物的径级结构进行调查分析,共记录到64种食源植物 (标记胸径 ≥ 5 cm的乔木1 484株)。海南长臂猿以高大粗壮的食源植物为主要采食对象。这些乔木型食源植物结果率超过50.0%的有15种,占C群全部乔木型采食植物种数的28.8%;结果率最高的是海南单籽暗罗 (Monoon laui, 76.7%),最低的是鹅掌柴 (Heptapleurum heptaphyllum, 9.6%)。18种长臂猿主食食源乔木中,白肉榕 (Ficus vasculosa)、斜叶榕 (Ficus tinctoria) 等15种食源植物的植株呈增长型结构。南酸枣 (Choerospondias axillaria)、二色波罗蜜 (Artocarpus styracifolius) 为稳定型结构,而桃榄 (Pouteria annamensis) 为衰退型结构。提示海南长臂猿食物供应植物仍处于年轻状态,但这些食源植物并非每年结果,每年都能结果的仅37种 (71.2%),采食树种的结果率高低不受海拔影响,而与树高和胸径显著相关。海南长臂猿在果实稀少的旱季会采食一定量的树叶 (15.6%),这种不稳定的食物供应将影响海南长臂猿的种群复壮。     

暗绿绣眼鸟春季和冬季取食生态位初步研究

2014年10—12月和2015年3—5月在广西壮族自治区宜州市对暗绿绣眼鸟Zosterops japonicus春季和冬季的取食空间生态位进行了研究,主要记录暗绿绣眼鸟的数量、取食时段、食物种类以及包括取食高度、水平取食位置、取食方向等相关取食行为数据。结果表明,暗绿绣眼鸟为杂食性鸟类,主要采食植物嫩叶、果实,偶尔采食昆虫或花瓣。春季取食的植物有31种,食物生态位宽度为13.86;冬季取食的植物有21种,食物生态位宽度为11.75;春季和冬季的食物生态位重叠度为0.903。春季暗绿绣眼鸟在06∶00—09∶00取食频次最高(占42.93%),而冬季则是在09∶00—12∶00取食频次最高(占38.04%)。卡方独立性检验表明:春季和冬季暗绿绣眼鸟在取食时间和取食高度上的差异均有统计学意义(P0.05),在水平取食位置和取食方向上的差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。     

内蒙古中部蒙古野驴春季食性分析

2012年3~5月和2013年3~5月,在内蒙古自治区中部的中蒙边境地区,采用粪便显微组织学分析方法并结合野外观察,分析研究了蒙古野驴(Equus hemionus hemionus)春季的食物组成。在取食点采集植物标本并进行种类鉴定发现共有20科45种植物;野外共观察到蒙古野驴取食群162次,群体平均大小为29.32头,采集粪样175个,将采集到的粪样按月分组,并组成6个混合粪样组。粪样显微分析结果表明,分布于内蒙古自治区中部地区的蒙古野驴,在春季共取食15科31种植物,其中实际采食比例(DR)禾本科植物54.88%、藜科植物17.37%、柽柳科植物6.64%、豆科植物6.52%;在取食植物中,克氏针茅(Stipa krylovii)(24.38%)、芨芨草(Achnatherum splendens)(15.11%)、珍珠猪毛菜(Salsola passerina)(9.92%)、狗尾草(Setaria viridis)(6.97%)、红沙(Reaumuria soongorica)(6.64%)、雾滨藜(Bassia dasyphylla)(5.67%)、糙隐子草(Kengia squarrosa)(5.10%),是主要取食植物种类,占取食植物的73.79%。春季采食的植物种类数比冬季多,各种植物在食物组成中所占的比例的差异不显著,低选择性是蒙古野驴春季取食对策的显著特征。     

高黎贡山赧亢白眉长臂猿春季栖息地利用

2006年3月24日—5月6日,在高黎贡山赧亢片区共设置利用样地与可利用样地各30个,跟踪观察白眉长臂猿栖息地利用行为。定性因子分析表明,白眉长臂猿偏爱在东坡(Ei=0.344)活动,可能与其能提供避风的温暖微生境有关;偏爱栓皮栎(Ei=0.455)和拟樱叶柃(Ei=0.068)等乔木,可能是由于这些树种的树冠面积大,可为白眉长臂猿提供连续的移动路线和大的活动空间。定量因子分析表明,利用和可利用样地中共有12个因子(坡度,乔木和竹平均高度,乔木平均胸围,乔木和灌木盖度,乔木、竹和藤本密度,距水源、道路和草果地距离)存在显著差异,说明白眉长臂猿对栖境的空间结构具有高度的选择性。判别分析结果显示,坡度、乔木平均胸围、竹密度、距水源距离和乔木平均高度是判别利用和可利用样地的关键因子,即为影响其生境利用的主要因子,判别正确率为98.3%。作为树栖灵长类,具有一定基面积的连续乔木[高度(14.14±3.19)m,胸围(90.72±26.12)cm]树冠层是白眉长臂猿的适宜生境;较大的坡度(39.98±8.10°)减少了来自地面的干扰;而竹林是白眉长臂猿春季重要的取食地。     

广西扶绥片段化栖息地中黑叶猴的食物选择

为了研究黑叶猴在片段化生境中的适应能力,2006年1～12月,采用焦点动物取样法和连续记录技术于每月初连续观察8 d,记录片段化栖息地中的一群黑叶猴觅食行为,同时采用样带法监测黑叶猴家域内食物可获得性的季节性变化。结果显示,黑叶猴以61种植物为食,月平均食物种类为21.8种。黑叶猴取食的食物部位中,嫩叶占比例最大,达55.8%,其次为果实的比例达12.4%,其他依次为成熟叶占12.1%,种子10.6%、花4.3%、芽2.7%和树皮2.4%。成熟叶的可获得性最大,可获得性指数在75%(2月)到100%(7～9月)之间;其次为嫩叶,可获得性指数在25%(11月)到94%(7月)之间,芽、花和果实等食物部位的可获得性指数在20%以下。取食各食物部位的时间与相应部位的可获得性指数间没有显著的相关关系(P>0.05)。月食物种类与生境中食物种数的可获得性间没有显著的相关关系(P>0.05)。因此,在片段化的栖息地中黑叶猴选择性地利用生境中的食物资源。     

白马雪山自然保护区响古箐滇金丝猴的食性

2008 年6 月至2009 年5 月,采用扫描瞬时取样法对云南白马雪山自然保护区响古箐滇金丝猴群的食性进行了研究。研究表明,该滇金丝猴群的食物主要由42 个科105 种植物组成。滇金丝猴全年的食物构成如下:松萝50.6% ,成熟叶16.3% ,果实/种子10.5% , 嫩叶8.4% ,竹笋7.9% , 芽3.0% , 花1.9% ,树皮/ 叶柄/茎0.8% ,真菌类0.5% 。研究还表明,滇金丝猴的食谱具有一定的季节性:即夏季取食的植物种类最多,冬季取食的植物种类最少,嫩叶是滇金丝猴春季的主要食物,而果实/ 种子在响古箐的滇金丝猴秋季食物中占有重要的比重。此外,发现竹笋是滇金丝猴夏季的主要食物资源。研究还发现,除松萝以外,对其食物贡献率最大的10科植物的比重达到39.6%,而蔷薇科的取食则高达17.57% ,表明响古箐滇金丝猴对不同种类的食物具有明显的选择性。以上结果表明,响古箐滇金丝猴的取食行为受食物资源季节性变化的影响。     

Seasonal variation of diet and time budget of Eastern hoolock gibbons (Hoolock leuconedys) living in a northern montane forest

Most gibbons dwell in the tropical forests of Southeastern Asia, but eastern hoolock gibbons (Hoolock leuconedys) survive in high montane forest ranging from 1,600 to 2,700 m a.s.l. in Gaoligongshan (>24°30′N), Yunnan, China. To assess the behavioral adaptations of hoolock gibbons to the montane forest, we related temperature and food availability within the habitat to the seasonal behavioral patterns of a family group and a solitary female between August 2010 and September 2011 in Nankang, Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve. The maximum temperature was 29.2 °C and the minimum temperature was ?0.3 °C during the period. The monthly mean temperature was <10 °C between December and February, making Nankang the coldest gibbon habitat reported so far. Nonfig fruit and fig availability declined to nearly zero in cold months. The family group increased resting and decreased travel and social behaviors when the monthly mean temperature was low. Compared with other gibbon populations, the hoolock gibbons spent proportionally less time feeding on figs and other fruit than other gibbon populations except Nomascus concolor and Symphalangus syndactylus. Only 36 species of plants provided nonfig fruit or figs, which is less than the number of fruit species consumed by any other gibbon population observed during a similar period of time (about 1 year). Hoolock gibbons shifted their diet to leaves and increased feeding time when fruit was not available. We conclude that diet flexibility and an energy-conserving strategy during the cold season when fruit is scarce have enabled the hoolock gibbons to survive in a northern montane forest.     

Ranging behavior of eastern hoolock gibbon (Hoolock leuconedys) in a northern montane forest in Gaoligongshan,Yunnan, China

Generally, food abundance and distribution exert important influence on primate ranging behavior. Hoolock gibbons (genus Hoolock) live in lowland and montane forests in India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and China. All information about hoolock gibbons comes from studies on western hoolock gibbons (Hoolock hoolock) living in lowland forest. Between August 2010 and September 2011, we studied the ranging behavior of one habituated group of eastern hoolock gibbon (H. leuconedys) living in a seasonal montane forest in Gaoligongshan, Yunnan, China. Results show that the study group did not increase foraging effort, calculated in this study as the daily path length, when fruit was less available. Instead, the gibbons fed more on leaves and decreased traveling to conserve energy. They relied heavily on a single food species in most study months which was patchily distributed within their total (14-month) home range, and during most months they used only a small portion of their total home range. In order to find enough food, the group shifted its monthly home range according to the seasonal availability of food species. To satisfy their annual food requirements, they occupied a total home range of 93 ha. The absence of neighboring groups of gibbons and the presence of tsaoko cardamom (Amomum tsaoko) plantations may also have influenced the ranging behavior of the group. Further long-term studies of neighboring groups living in intact forests are required to assess these effects.     

Fallback Foods of Red Leaf Monkeys (Presbytis rubicunda) in Danum Valley, Borneo

Animals in Southeast Asia must cope with long periods of fruit scarcity of unpredictable duration between irregular mast fruiting events. Long-term data are necessary to examine the effect of mast fruiting on diet, and particularly on the selection of fallback foods during periods of fruit scarcity. No such data is available for colobine monkeys, which may consume substantial amounts of fruits and seeds when available. We studied the diet of red leaf monkeys (Presbytis rubicunda, Colobinae) in Danum Valley, Sabah, northern Borneo, using 25 mo of behavioral observation, phenology and vegetation surveys, and chemical analysis to compare leaves eaten with nonfood leaves. The monkeys spent 46% of their feeding time on young leaves, 38% on seeds, 12% on whole fruits, 2.0% on flowers, 1.0% on bark, and 1.2% on pith. They spent more time feeding on seeds and whole fruit when fruit availability was high and fed on young leaves of Spatholobus macropterus (liana, Leguminosae) as fallback foods. This species was by far the most important food, constituting 27.9% of the total feeding time, and the feeding time on this species negatively correlated with fruit availability. Consumed leaves contained more protein than nonconsumed leaves, and variation in time spent feeding on different leaves was explained by their abundance. These results suggest that red leaf monkeys show essentially the same response to the supra-annual increase in fruit availability as sympatric monogastric primates, increasing their seed and whole-fruit consumption. However, they depended more on young leaves, in particular Spatholobus macropterus, as fallback foods during fruit-scarce periods than did gibbons or orangutans. Their selection of fallback food appeared to be due to both nutrition and abundance.     

Effects of cold weather on the sleeping behavior of Skywalker hoolock gibbons (Hoolock tianxing) in seasonal montane forest

Considering the high energetic costs of maintaining constant body temperature, mammals must adjust their thermoregulatory behaviors in response to cold temperatures. Although primate daytime thermoregulation is relatively well studied, there is limited research in relation to nighttime strategies. To investigate how Skywalker hoolock gibbons (Hoolock tianxing) cope with the low temperatures found in montane forests, we collected sleep‐related behavior data from one group (NA) and a single female (NB) at Nankang (characterized by extensive tsaoko plantations) between July 2010 and September 2011, and one group (BB) at Banchang (relatively well‐managed reserve forest) between May 2013 and May 2015 in Mt. Gaoligong, Yunnan, China. The annual mean temperature was 13.3°C at Nankang (October 2010 to September 2011) and 13.0°C at Banchang (June 2013 to May 2015) with temperatures dropping below ?2.0°C at both sites, making them the coldest known gibbon habitats. The lowest temperatures at both sites remained below 5.0°C from November to March, which we, therefore, defined as the “cold season”. The hoolock gibbons remained in their sleeping trees for longer periods during the cold season compared to the warm season. Sleeping trees found at lower elevations and closer to potential feeding trees were favored during cold seasons at both sites. In addition, the gibbons were more likely to huddle together during cold seasons. Our results suggest that cold temperatures have a significant effect on the sleeping behavior of the Skywalker hoolock gibbon, highlighting the adaptability of this threatened species in response to cold climates.     

云南高黎贡山大塘东部白眉长臂猿鸣叫行为

通过2009年10月至2010年7月监测高黎贡山大塘的3群东部白眉长臂猿的鸣叫行为,收集了10个月(200d)的数据,发现东部白眉长臂猿的鸣叫行为主要发生在黎明后4h内;平均每次鸣叫持续14min59s,不同群体间鸣叫持续时间不同。天气情况影响东部白眉长臂猿的鸣叫开始时间(相对黎明)和持续时间,在雨天鸣叫相对黎明开始时间较晚,持续时间也较长。东部白眉长臂猿鸣叫频率在10月和11月明显高于其他月份,可能与食物(果实)的丰富度有关。根据研究结果,建议对东部白眉长臂猿的调查最好集中在10月或11月;每天监测时间至少持续至黎明后4h,以覆盖长臂猿90%以上的鸣叫;如果出现下雨天气,应适当延长调查时间。     

Behavioral responses of Cao Vit gibbon (Nomascus nasutus) to variations in food abundance and temperature in Bangliang, Jingxi, China

The Cao Vit gibbon is a critically endangered species with only about 110 individuals remaining in a degraded karst forest along the China-Vietnam border. Behavioral data from this site are particularly useful in understanding gibbon behavioral adaptations to different sets of ecological conditions and will contribute to the conservation of the species. We studied seasonal variation in the time budget and diet of the Cao Vit gibbon in response to variation in food availability and ambient temperature by observing two groups for 1,379 hr between January and December 2009. We used 5-min scan samples to record the activity of gibbons. Both ambient temperature and food availability varied from month to month. Gibbon groups increased resting time and huddled together in sleeping places in cold months. Gibbons spent more time feeding on fruit when fruit was more abundant suggesting that fruit was their preferred food. Alternatively, leaf eating was negatively correlated with leaf availability which suggested that leaves may be used as a fallback food. Gibbons increased their diet diversity when they ate more leaves. This might be a strategy to cope with toxins or digestion inhibitor accumulation associated with feeding from a limited number of leaf species. Individuals consumed more buds when Broussonetia papyrifera produced buds in March and April. During this period, they decreased traveling time and engaged in less frequent social interactions. Gibbons spent more time searching for and feeding on invertebrates during June and October. However, we did not collect data on invertebrate abundance and therefore cannot determine the relationship between invertebrate feeding and availability. We conclude that flexibility in consuming diverse food types and food species, and in responding to the availability of preferred foods, has enabled the Cao Vit gibbon to survive in a degraded karst forest habitat.     

Antipredation Sleeping Behavior of Skywalker Hoolock Gibbons (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hoolock tianxing</Emphasis>) in Mt. Gaoligong,Yunnan, China

Studying sleeping behavior can provide key information for understanding the ecology of a species. Antipredation is an important factor that affects primate sleeping behavior. We studied antipredation sleeping behavior in skywalker hoolock gibbons (Hoolock tianxing). We studied one group (NA) and a solitary female (NB) at Nankang from July 2010 to September 2011, and another group (BB) at Banchang from May 2013 to December 2014 in Mt. Gaoligong, Yunnan, China. Over the study period, we recorded 67 sleeping trees for members of group NA over 92 days, 17 trees for the solitary female NB over 22 days, and 159 trees for members of group BB over 186 days. Skywalker hoolock gibbons at both sites rarely used the same tree on consecutive days (N = 3 at both sites). They traveled fast to enter sleeping tree a mean of 160 ± SD 43 min before sunset at Nankang, and a mean of 192 ± SD 40 min before sunset at Banchang. They seldom (Nankang: 14%, N = 183 observations; Banchang: 25%, N = 548 observations) defecated in sleeping trees. They slept at sites with more tall and large trees and preferred to sleep on tall trees in the site. They slept on branches of small diameter and closer to tree tops. Our study suggests that antipredation plays an important role in skywalker hoolock gibbons’ sleeping tree selection and sleeping behavior. In addition, our data suggest potential effects of habitat degradation on gibbons’ sleeping behavior. Tall trees are especially important for gibbons in degraded forest and should be protected.     

Food selection by the silver leaf monkey,Trachypithecus auratus sondaicus,in relation to plant chemistry

Summary Samples of leaves and fruits exploited as food items byTrachypithecus auratus sondaicus were analysed for nitrogen content, acid detergent fibre (ADF), pepsin cellulase digestibility (CDIG), condensed tannins (CT), total phenolics (TP) and protein precipitation capacity (PP) and compared with fruits and leaves not eaten. Differences in chemical measures for items eaten and not eaten were not statistically significant but trends indicate that leaves may have been selected for their lower fibre content and greater digestibility. Fruits eaten also had a higher mean level of CDIG and lower mean level of ADF than fruits not eaten but these measures are not considered to be of major importance in fruit selection as CDIG was lower and ADF higher in fruits eaten than in leaves eaten. Levels of CT, TP and PP capacity were higher in fruits eaten than in fruits not eaten but lower in leaves eaten than in leaves not eaten. The role of tannins and phenolics in food selection is discussed. Leaves (and fruits) were not strongly selected on the basis of protein content. Approximately half the dietary intake ofT. auratus sondaicus was leaves, a protein-rich food source. Possibly, protein levels in foliage at Pangandaran were sufficient that selection for this nutrient was not required. A nutrient other than protein (for example, soluble carbohydrates) may have been maximised through food selection. The protein/ADF ratio may provide an indicator of the acceptability of foliage in a habitat as potential food for a colobine. However, this ratio did not govern food selection byT. auratus sondaicus at Pangandaran.