Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Rangan Hills,India. 1. Contribution to rural income

It is generally assumed that the sustained extraction and processing of non-timber forest products by local people can enhance their cash income and provide an alternative to tropical deforestation. However, the degree to which such products actually or may potentially contribute to rural incomes is poorly documented. We present the results of a study that seeks to evaluate the reliance of an indigenous group on non-timber forest products for cash income. Furthermore, we examine the effect of household variables on the cash income derived from collection and the price appreciation of non-timber forest products. These products account for nearly half of the gross annual income earned by the Soliga households in the Biligiri Rangan Hills of the Karnataka State in South India. Econometric models indicate that although income derived from the extraction of non-timber forest products is high in proportion to the time devoted to the collection, the extraction is not a preferred vocation. Furthermore, price appreciation for non-timber forest products varies for different products and, overall, the Soligas obtain essentially minimal wages for their extractive efforts. We discuss possible mechanisms for enhancement of Soligas’ income and the involvement of Soligas in conservation efforts.     

Nontimber forest product gathering in Ritigala forest (Sri Lanka): Household strategies and community differentiation

Sri Lanka has a long tradition of forest product use. The relationship of people with a dry zone forest was studied using a sample of 48 households in two villages that varied in distance to the forest and access to the market. All households interviewed collected subsistence forest products and a majority of them also collected commercial products. The daily peak-season income from commercial gathering was 4.5 to 7.7 times the daily labor wage. There is a strong gender specialization, with commercial gathering dominated by men whereas subsistence gathering is almost exclusively the task of women. The average forest-derived household income in the village closer to the forest and with better market access was nearly double that of the other village. Family size as a proxy of labor availability was the main discriminating factor between those households who did and those who did not gather commercial products. A small inverse relationship between forest gathering and size of household agricultural land (particularly paddy rice) was observed. No clear relationship was found between total household income and forest derived income, contradicting the view that commercial forest gathering is an exclusive activity of the poorest households.     

Valuing the rain forest: Economic strategies by small-scale forest extractivists in the Amazon estuary

The current interest in non-timber forest products as an economic option for the Brazilian Amazon represents a radical departure from the policies that have guided development in the region during recent decades. Despite this interest, little is currently known about the forms of resource management or economic strategies practiced by populations dependent on such resources. In this study, we measured the annual income and expenditures of ten households on Combu Island, located in the Amazon estuary near the major port city of Belém; in addition, we documented local uses and management of natural resources on the island Average annual income per household was found to be over U.S. $4000, derived primarily from the harvest and sale of non-timber forest products. The results of this study show that the combination of proximity to a major market and appropriate resource management can lead to high and apparently sustainable economic returns.Formerly Senior Researcher at the Museu Paraense Emílio GoeldiFormerly Student Fellow at the Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi     

The Effects of Processing Non-Timber Forest Products and Trade Partnerships on People's Well-Being and Forest Conservation in Amazonian Societies

This study evaluated whether processing non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and establishing trade partnerships between forest communities and companies enhance the outcomes of NTFP commercialization. In particular, we evaluated whether product processing, partnerships, or their combination was associated with a number of outcomes related to the well-being of forest inhabitants and forest conservation. We based our analyses on ethnographic and quantitative data (i.e., survey and systematic observations) gathered at seven communities from five societies of the Brazilian and Bolivian Amazon. Our results indicated that product processing and partnerships do not represent a silver bullet able to improve the results of NTFP commercialization in terms of well-being and conservation indicators. Compared with cases without interventions, households adopting partnerships but not product processing were most often associated with improved economic proxies of well-being (total income, NTFP income, food consumption and gender equality in income). In comparison, the combination of product processing and partnerships was associated with similar outcomes. Unexpectedly, product processing alone was associated with negative outcomes in the economic indicators of well-being. All of the investigated strategies were associated with less time spent in social and cultural activities. With respect to forest conservation, the strategies that included a partnership with or without processing produced similar results: while household deforestation tended to decrease, the hunting impact increased. Processing alone was also associated with higher levels of hunting, though it did not reduce deforestation. Our results indicate that establishing partnerships may enhance the outcomes of NTFP trade in terms of the financial outcomes of local communities, but practitioners need to use caution when adopting the processing strategy and they need to evaluate potential negative results for indicators of social and cultural activities. With respect to conservation, the three strategies are promising for reducing deforestation, but more pervasive impacts, such as hunting, might increase.     

The faint promise of a distant market: a survey of Belém's trade in non-timber forest products

Increased trade in non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has been promoted as one possible means to slow tropical deforestation by increasing the economic value of intact forest. A market survey of NTFPs occurring in the Capim River basin in eastern Amazonia, Brazil demonstrated that the reality for many smallholder communities in frontier and remote regions includes chronic transportation difficulties, high variability in fruit production, perishable products and lack of market expertise. In some communities, declining abundance of NTFPs due to logging and fire has resulted in a lack of forest products to even meet subsistence needs. In areas close to cities where transportation is assured and where forest clearing has eroded the natural occurrence of some valuable native NTFPs, smallholders who manage and successfully market native fruit and medicinal species are overcoming these obstacles. In frontier regions undergoing rapid transformation, however, decline in locally used and regionally marketed NTFPs currently pose detrimental consequences for communities. Findings suggest that an overemphasis on NTFP marketing has diverted attention from local livelihood, resource access and subsistence issues.     

Impacts of Trade in Non-timber Forest Products on Cooperation among Caboclo Households of the Brazilian Amazon

Trade in non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has been touted as promoting forest conservation and enhancing the well-being of local residents through increased cash income, which is considered a positive outcome. However, research on cooperation has demonstrated that increased market access and income may strengthen or weaken cooperation. Because cooperation is essential for community resilience in small-scale societies, negative effects on people’s well-being can be expected if increased NTFP trade reduces cooperation. To evaluate whether NTFP trade affected cooperation, we used household data (survey and systematic observations) to compare the frequency of cooperation in two communities of Brazilian Amazon Caboclos, one of which engaged in NTFP trade, while the other did not. Cooperation was less frequent in the community trading NTFPs, but neither household cash income nor household participation in NTFP exploitation was associated with cooperative behavior. Decreased frequency most likely derived from indirect effects of NTFP trade, such as less time to fish or socialize, or other outcomes observable only at the community level, such as income inequality, the influx of new residents and consequent population growth. Our results indicate that conservation and development projects based on NTFP trade may negatively impact social and economic well-being of local communities.     

非木材林产品的民族植物学研究进展

非木材林产品（NTFPs）是指从森林植被中采集的药材、食物（如野菜、野果等）、树脂树胶、纤维或其他非木材类产品,它们不仅为当地群众提供了食物、药材等日常生活必需品,而且也是许多地区原住民的重要经济收入来源。在收集整理相关国内外研究资料的基础上,从非木材林产品的集市民族植物学、非木材林产品的经济价值和对原住民经济收入的贡献、影响非木材林产品采集和利用的因素、非木材林产品采集对当地生物多样性的影响、原住民对非木材林产品的传统管理与保护等方面对近年来有关非木材林产品的民族植物学研究进展进行了综合评述,并对非木材林产品的民族植物学重点研究内容和方向提出了一些建议。     

Role of non-timber forest products in the economy of peripheral communities of knuckles national wilderness area of Sri Lanka: A farming systems approach

The Knuckles range of forests has been identified as a unique biological resource in Sri Lanka with much biodiversity. It is also important as a watershed which feeds the Mahaweli reservoir system. Having considered the present hazardous land-use practices such as cardamum production and shifting cultivation, the Knuckles range has been declared a national wilderness area. The Forest Department is in the process of preparing the management plan for the area. There are about 48 villages in the vicinity of the forest. This study attempts to estimate the composition of income in the peripheral communities, ticularly the extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFP) from this range of forests. Data were collected using structured questionnaires from 60 households in three villages in the vicinity of the forest. The rural economy is described using a farming systems approach and the net income contributed by each activity in the farming system was estimated. Results show that nine components of the farming system use resources from the village and the forest, with at least 47 plant species used by the villagers for different purposes. Cardamum production and shifting cultivation contribute significantly to the total income of the household, but the majority of households in the study depend upon forest resources to supply some portion of their income. Nevertheless, the monetary value of the annual income generated by NTFP is much lower than income from either cardamum production or shifting cultivation. If cardamum production and shifting cultivation are to be restricted under the conservation program, there could be additional pressure put on NTFP. Therefore, we suggest a study of the natural regen-eration capacity of selected NTFP; such information should be used in finalizing the management plan in the Knuckles range of forests.     

Tree population studies in low-diversity forests, Guyana. II. Assessments on the distribution and abundance of non-timber forest products

Comparisons between two forest localities were undertaken to assess the potential availability of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) within the low-diversity forests of Guyana. Information on the abundance and distribution of tree species, and local and national ethnobotanical surveys were used classifying species into five categories (timber, construction, technological, edible and medicinal). A total of 152 species were recorded from the two localities; covering 236 different uses, 33 known commercial timber species and 106 species with potential non-timber product utilization. The most important plant families with the highest number of uses at both localities were Leguminosae (sub-families Caesalpinioideae and Mimosoideae), Arecaceae, Bombacaceae and Chrysobalanaceae, although these families were not the most abundant families at both localities. At both forest localities eight tree species represented over 50% of all the trees. At Kurupukari three species, each with more than three identified NTFPs, represented over 20% of the trees.Potential utilization of NTFPs are discussed in accordance with species richness, tree density, the number of different uses per species, and the percentage of trees represented by each utilizable species. Considering the constraints on the future potential commercialization of NTFPs, two scenarios for the extraction of NTFPs are discussed. Within relatively species-rich forest types the high diversity of products provides potentially viable multiple-species extractionism. In contrast, in low-diversity forest types, typical of the Guiana Shield, one or two NTFP species frequently represent over 50% of the canopy trees, and therefore substantially increase the potential sustainable extraction for single-species harvesting. It is suggested that these low-diversity types of forest are prioritized for conservation on the basis of ensuring future utilization, refuge, of non-timber forest products.     

Interdisciplinary research towards management of non-timber forest resources in lowland rain forests of Sri Lanka

Lowland and mid-elevational rainforests of Sri Lanka harbor a relict, endemic-rich flora which is also rich in timber and non-timber forest resources. These forests supply nearly half the total wood requirements of the country and are dwindling rapidly; management of the forests to conserve the biological richness and maintain environmental services is therefore a difficult proposition. This predicament is further compounded by the dependency of rural people on a range of non-timber forest resources for their subsistence and income. A forestry master plan recently prepared for Sri Lanka has not given adequate recognition to the important role played by non-timber forest resources in rural livelihood. This oversight is primarily due to the lack of quantitative information to justify the role of non-timber forest resources in forestry sector development. Forestry policies that ignore these resources often anger local people, leading the villagers to vent their disapproval through destructive actions such as burning timber plantations. Long-term interdisciplinary research in ecology, reproductive and soil biology, ethnobiology, silviculture, rural sociology and resource economics in progress at Sinharaja attempts to address these questions of sustainable development of forest resources in an integrated mode. While research oriented toward conservation investigates both short- and long-term ecosystem dynamics in natural and modified forest stands, utilization-oriented research probes the impact of increased human disturbance, particularly the impact of rural communities on dwindling forest resources, as well as the effect of forest conservation on rural livelihood. These studies continue to seek alternative methods of forest management which are socially acceptable, economically viable, and ecologically sustainable for multiple uses. These methods will assist in the refinement of current forest policies, forestry planning, and the implementation of new policies and plans in Sri Lanka.     

Non-timber forest products in the community of El Terrero, Sierra de Manantlán Biosphere Reserve, Mexico: Is their use sustainable?

The importance of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) to rural income was examined in a highland community in the Sierra de Manantlán Biosphere Reserve, Jalisco-Colima, Mexico. Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) techniques were used to interview 70% of households in the community of El Terrero. Of the nine plant species identified as NTFP sources, the two principal species traded by the community were tila (derived from the flowers and fruits of the tree Ternstroemia lineata), and blackberry (Rubus spp.). Collecting and selling of NTFPs was almost exclusively undertaken by women, with 80% of respondents participating. NTFP sale ranked as the most important source of cash income for 30% of women interviewed, and either second- or third-most important for the remainder. The research examined harvesting impact on populations of T. lineata, an understory tree species characteristic of cloud forest, which this was assessed in the four most-frequented collecting sites. Our results suggested that current harvesting approaches appear to be sustainable, although 95% of the women interviewed reported a decline in resource availability within the last 15 years, apparently resulting from illegal cutting. Suggestions are made with respect to the sustainable development of NTFP resources to help alleviate poverty within the Reserve.     

Using suitable projects in adding value to nonwood forest products in The Philippines: The Copal (Agathis Philippinensis) trade in Palawan

Using Suitable Projects in Adding Value to Nonwood Forest Products in the Philippines: The Copal (Agathis philippinensis)Trade in Palawan. Economic Botany 58(3):476-485, 2004. The Philippines is a country that has little low-forest cover left, but it still has many useful forest species. Despite the decline of forest area and the degradation of forests, many of the poorest households, both indigenous and migrant, are pushed into the remaining forest area and depend on forest goods for their subsistence and monetary income. These goods are inevitably nonwood forest products (NWFPs) because timber extraction is now illegal in many parts of the country. The extraction of nonwood forest products, such as resin and rattan, is the only source of a cash income for many households. However, despite the long tradition of NWFP extraction in forest-edge villages, the income that collectors get from these products is still minimal. The impediments to a more equitable and efficient trade in NWFPs are examined, and possible ways of adding value locally to NWFPs are presented, using almaciga (Agathis philippinensis) resin extraction as a case study.     

The Prospects for Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) in Vietnam: A Look at Three Payment Schemes

Global conservation discourses and practices increasingly rely on market-based solutions to fulfill the dual objective of forest conservation and economic development. Although varied, these interventions are premised on the assumption that natural resources are most effectively managed and preserved while benefiting livelihoods if the market-incentives of a liberalised economy are correctly in place. By examining three nationally supported payment for ecosystem service (PES) schemes in Vietnam we show how insecure land tenure, high transaction costs and high opportunity costs can undermine the long-term benefits of PES programmes for local households and, hence, potentially threaten their livelihood viability. In many cases, the income from PES programmes does not reach the poor because of political and economic constraints. Local elite capture of PES benefits through the monopolization of access to forestland and existing state forestry management are identified as key problems. We argue that as PES schemes create a market for ecosystem services, such markets must be understood not simply as bald economic exchanges between ‘rational actors’ but rather as exchanges embedded in particular socio-political and historical contexts to support the sustainable use of forest resources and local livelihoods in Vietnam.     

The effect of income on the extraction of non-timber tropical forest products: Model,hypotheses, and preliminary findings from the Sumu Indians of Nicaragua

We use microeconomic theory to frame hypotheses about the effects of income on the use of non-timber rain forest products. We hypothesize that an increase in income: (a) encourages foraging specialization, resulting in the extraction of fewer goods; (b) increases the share of household income from occupations besides foraging; (c) produces a yearly value from the extraction of nontimber forest goods of about $50 per hectare; and (d) produces depletion of forest goods entering commercial channels and sustainable extraction of goods facing cheaper industrial substitutes. To examine these hypotheses we present worldwide ethnographic information and preliminary findings from field work carried out among the Sumu Indians of Nicaragua. Field work suggests that higher income produces: (a) foraging specialization with animals rather than with plants; (b) a decline in the economic importance of forest goods in household income; (c) and a rise in the value of non-timber goods removed from the forest to about $35/ha/year. We did not have time to test hypothesis d.     

Extraction of non-timber forest products in the Forests of Biligiri Rangan Hills,India. 3. Productivity,extraction and prospects of sustainable harvest of amla phyllanthus emblica, (Euphorbiaceae)

Sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) depends upon harvesting a small fraction of the total productivity. Over-exploitation can lead to a loss of biodiversity, but a low level of extraction, without value addition at the point of origin, is usually not economically feasible for extractors. Extraction and productivity levels per unit area for most non-timber forest products are unknown, nor do we have much information about value addition at various points in the marketing channels. Here we determine extraction and productivity levels for Amla trees (Phyllanthus emblica), which yield fruits that are used for a wide variety of purposes in preparation of various foods, beverages and medicines. We also present preliminary data on the price appreciation of the fruit for one of the processed products. We have determined that the current level of extraction, 60-80% of all fruits at the population level, may have a negative effect on new recruitment. We present a model for value addition that has the potential to enhance income and reduce the level of extraction. This model is currently being implemented by the Soliga community with the assistance of a non-governmental organization.     

农户生计与生态系统服务关系的区域差异及驱动机制——以密云水库上游流域为例

深入揭示生态系统与农户福祉之间的关系,对实现农户差异化管理及区域可持续发展具有重要意义。本研究以密云水库上游流域(包括北京市和河北省的部分区域)为研究区域,基于1754份农户调查问卷数据,通过统计计量方法对比分析了流域内北京市、河北省农户福祉水平(以家庭总收入表示)与生态系统服务依赖性(以生态系统依赖性指数表示)的关系。结果表明: 流域内京冀农户生计与生态系统的互作模式均可分为4类,但京冀两地不同模式占比差异较大。北京农户样本中,占比最高的是高福祉-低依赖模式(33.9%),农户人均年收入显著高于河北农户,农户的各项生计资本也较河北省农户高;河北农户中,不提倡的低福祉-高依赖模式仍占比39.1%,对提升农户福祉水平至关重要的人力资本素质、社会资本、金融资本等均显著低于北京农户;河北农户主要依赖农业生产收入(41.2%),对土地的开发利用程度显著较高;相对于北京农户,河北农户的自然资源条件、人力资本素质对农户生计的影响更加显著。保持适当家庭规模、不断提高劳动力教育水平、提高低收入家庭的生态补偿标准是形成农户与生态系统良好互动关系(高福祉-低依赖型)的关键因素。     

Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Rangan Hills,India. 2. Impact of NTFP extraction on regeneration,population structure,and species composition

Sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has recently gained considerable attention as a means to enhance rural incomes and conserve tropical forests. However, there is little information on the amounts of products collected per unit area and the impact of extraction on forest structure and composition. In this paper we estimate the quantities of selected products gathered by the Soligas, the indigenous people in the Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple (BRT) sanctuary in Karnataka, India, and examine the effect of extraction on forest structure and composition. Two sites, distant (DS) and proximal (PS), were identified based on the proximity to a Soliga settlement. The frequency of different size classes indicates that regeneration overall is poor in the area. The two sites show differences in species richness, basal area, and tree mortality. Furthermore, non-timber forest product species show a greater deficit of small size classes than the timber forest species, suggesting that regeneration is affected by collection of seeds and fruits from non-timber forest product species. Regeneration, however, may also be affected by other anthropogenic pressures such as fire, grazing and competition with weeds.     

Structure and floristic composition of community forests and their compatibility with villagers' traditional needs for forest products

A persisting problem in protected area management in Nepal is whether resources from buffer zones can replace villagers' extraction of resources from protected areas. Community forestry is assigned a major role in supplying these substitutes, and natural regeneration and rehabilitation of degraded forests are thought to be means to establish forests with a high compatibility with villagers' demand. This study investigates the structure and floristic composition of six community forests established through natural regeneration of degraded sal (Shorea robusta) forests and of former riverine forest areas which have been cleared and overgrazed. The inventories are compared to an in-depth survey of the extraction of forest products from Royal Chitwan National Park (RCNP) for 12 consecutive months by nine households. The results show that natural regeneration creates a multi-layered forest structure and that early succession stages of mixed forests, which floristically resemble former primary forests, emerged in only a few years when protected from grazing. The presence of timber and fuelwood species in the community forest matched to some extent the species traditionally extracted by people from the Park. With regard to non-timber forest products (NTFP), the natural regenerated community forests were much less compatible with the villagers' traditional dependency on and extraction from the Park, which points to the limitations of community forestry in relieving anthropogenic pressure on the RCNP.     

Valuation and sustainable use of tropical rainforest

Studies of the extraction of non-timber forest products have shown that the standing rainforest may be more valuable than alternatives involving deforestation

Although this article is about placing a value on rainforest, it begins by stressing the importance and value of rainforest for its environmental function, particularly for the control of world climate patterns. It is then shown how rainforest peoples depend on the plants around them and in some study areas were found to have a use for every tree on the one-hectare plots. It is therefore not surprising that the rainforest can contain many non-timber forest products (NTFPs) of commercial potential, some of which such as rubber latex and Brazil nuts have been in the market economy for many years. A summary is given of various attempts to place a value on rainforest for its NTFPs. Each of the three studies showed that the extraction of these products could be more valuable than alternative land uses involving deforestation. Various rainforest countries such as Brazil, Guatemala, and Indonesia have set up extractive reserves where local people are allowed to extract NTFPs but not to clear cut the forest. Extractive reserves have slowed down deforestation in some areas, but only provide a meagre subsistence existence for their inhabitants, so while they are useful, they are not a panacea that will solve all the conservation problems of tropical rainforest.     

Community-based natural resource use and management of Bigodi Wetland Sanctuary,Uganda, for livelihood benefits

Conservation and sustainable management of wetlands requires participation of local stakeholders, including communities. The Bigodi Wetland is unusual because it is situated in a common property landscape but the local community has been running a successful community-based natural resource management programme (CBNRM) for the wetland for over a decade. Whilst external visitors to the wetland provide ecotourism revenues we sought to quantify community benefits through the use of wetland goods such as firewood, plant fibres, and the like, and costs associated with wild animals damaging farming activities. We interviewed 68 households living close to the wetland and valued their cash and non-cash incomes from farming and collection of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and water. The majority of households collected a wide variety of plant and fish resources and water from the wetland for household use and livestock. Overall, 53% of total household cash and non-cash income was from collected products, mostly the wetland, 28% from arable agriculture, 12% from livestock and 7% from employment and cash transfers. Female-headed households had lower incomes than male-headed ones, and with a greater reliance on NTFPs. Annual losses due to wildlife damage were estimated at 4.2% of total gross income. Most respondents felt that the wetland was important for their livelihoods, with more than 80% identifying health, education, craft materials and firewood as key benefits. Ninety-five percent felt that the wetland was in a good condition and that most residents observed the agreed CBNRM rules regarding use of the wetland. This study confirms the success of the locally run CBNRM processes underlying the significant role that the wetland plays in local livelihoods.