珊瑚及共生藻在白化过程中的适应机制研究进展

珊瑚礁生态系统具有非常重要的生态学功能。但是随着全球气候变暖和CO2浓度的升高,珊瑚白化事件越来越频繁,珊瑚礁生态系统面临严重的危机。影响珊瑚白化的重要因子主要有海水温度的异常（过高或过低）,太阳辐射与紫外线辐射,海水盐度的偏离,珊瑚疾病,海洋污染,长棘海星的爆发,人类的过度捕鱼和全球CO2浓度升高等。其中,海洋表面水体温度（SST）的异常升高为珊瑚白化的主要因素。珊瑚主要是通过珊瑚与共生藻的生理适应机制以及更换共生藻基因型机制两种方式来适应环境胁迫的。生理适应机制主要通过叶黄素循环、珊瑚色素荧光（热）、活性氧清除系统（自由基）、分泌紫外线吸收物质MAAs（紫外光）、产生热休克蛋白HspS（热）来实现的。珊瑚共生藻基因型更换适应机制是指珊瑚的适应性白化假说。珊瑚的适应性白化假说还有很多争议,还需要更多的实验证据提供支持。未来的研究重点将在珊瑚白化过程中共生藻-珊瑚共生功能体作为整体性的研究,尤其是珊瑚宿主在白化过程中对共生功能体作出贡献的研究。     

珊瑚礁生态系统病毒研究进展

病毒对珊瑚礁生态系统中的生物进化、生物地球化学循环、珊瑚疾病等方面具有重要的生态影响。随着珊瑚礁的全球性退化，病毒在珊瑚礁生态系统中的功能与危害日益显现。综述了珊瑚礁生态系统中病毒的研究现状与进展，包括：（1）珊瑚礁病毒的多样性与分布特征（水体、宿主、核心病毒组）；（2）珊瑚礁病毒的生态功能（感染方式、促进生物进化、生物地球化学循环）；（3）珊瑚礁病毒对全球气候变化的响应（热压力、珊瑚疾病）。总体而言，珊瑚礁生态系统具有极高的病毒多样性，所发现的60个科占已知所有病毒科数量的58%。珊瑚的核心病毒组主要由双链DNA病毒、单链DNA病毒、单链逆转录病毒所组成，珊瑚黏液层对病毒具有富集作用。"Piggyback-the-Winner"（依附-胜利）是病毒在珊瑚礁中主要的生物动力学模式，其可通过水平基因迁移的方式促进礁区生物进化。病毒可通过裂解细菌与浮游藻类的途径参与珊瑚礁的生物地球化学循环，尤其是碳循环与氮循环过程。此外，病毒还具有介导珊瑚热白化与直接引发珊瑚疾病的能力，这会影响珊瑚礁生态系统应对气候变化的适应性与恢复力。基于国际上的研究进展综述，结合南海珊瑚礁生态现状提出以下研究方向，以期促进我国珊瑚礁病毒学的发展：（1）开展南海珊瑚礁中病毒多样性的识别及其时-空分布特征研究；（2）探索病毒对南海珊瑚热白化、珊瑚疾病的介导作用及其与气候变化的关系；（3）揭示病毒对南海珊瑚礁生物地球化学循环的贡献。     

珊瑚礁白化研究进展

珊瑚礁白化是由于珊瑚失去体内共生的虫黄藻和（或）共生的虫黄藻失去体内色素而导致五彩缤纷的珊瑚礁变白的生态现象。近年来，频繁发生的珊瑚礁白化导致了珊瑚礁生态系统严重退化，并已经影响到全球珊瑚礁生态系统的平衡，受到了人们的高度重视。研究认为：（1）大范围珊瑚礁白化主要是全球环境变化引起的，尤其是全球变暖和紫外辐射增强；（2）导致珊瑚礁白化的机制主要在于细胞机制和光抑制机制；（3）珊瑚礁白化后的恢复与白化程度有关，大范围白化的珊瑚礁完全恢复需要几年到几十年；（4）珊瑚礁白化的后果在于降低珊瑚繁殖能力、减缓珊瑚礁生长、改变礁栖生物的群落结构，导致大面积珊瑚死亡和改变珊瑚礁生态类型，如变为海藻型等；（5）与珊瑚共生的D系群虫黄藻更适应高温环境，珊瑚礁有可能通过D系群逐渐取代C系群的方式适应全球环境变化。     

西沙珊瑚礁生态系统完整性评价与动态仿真模拟研究

以中国西沙珊瑚礁生态监控区为例,从生态系统完整性视角出发,结合珊瑚礁功能群组与环境变化的多重反馈效应,运用系统动力学方法构建了西沙珊瑚礁生态系统动态诊断模型,并通过基础情景和典型干扰情景（捕捞活动、陆源沉积、长棘海星（Acanthaster planci）暴发）的模拟过程,分析该生态监控区2010-2050年生态系统完整性的发展趋势及演变机理。结果显示：（1）系统动力学与生态系统完整性评价方法的整合,为珊瑚礁生态系统完整性的定量研究提供了一种可行性的方法;（2）珊瑚礁生态系统各效应指数中累积效应的变化最为明显,2010-2050年指数最大增长17.2,年均增长率约为1.2%,综合完整性指数在波动变化中稳步上升,珊瑚礁受损程度由中受损向中、低受损转变;（3）不同状态的珊瑚礁生态系统完整性,在其演化的不同阶段各有差异性,并且这种差异通常随时间推移才逐渐放大;（4）无论何种情景下,珊瑚礁生态系统都具有一定的恢复能力,尤其处于系统演化的释放重组阶段（2035-2040年）,生态系统的不稳定将创造了一定的可恢复性。研究结果对于分析西沙珊瑚礁生态系统的整体演化过程提供了理论借鉴,也为我国后续的珊瑚礁生态系统适应性修复理论模式研究提供了重要的基础。     

亚热带常绿林不同冠层小枝叶面积-叶生物量关系研究

叶面积与叶生物量的关系对于理解植物叶片的碳收益和投资权衡策略具有重要意义。收益递减假说认为植物的叶面积与叶生物量成显著异速生长关系，其异速生长指数<1.0，但该假说是否适用于不同生活型（常绿与落叶）亚热带木本植物不同冠层高度（上下冠层）当年生小枝的叶片仍不清楚。以江西亚热带常绿阔叶林的69种常绿与落叶木本植物当年生小枝上的叶为研究对象，采用标准化主轴回归估计（standardized major axis estimation，SMA）方法检验不同冠层高度和生活型叶面积与叶生物量的异速生长关系。结果显示：（1）当年生小枝叶生物量在不同冠层高度和生活型的植物中无显著差异（P>0.05），叶面积在常绿和落叶植物中有显著差异（P<0.05），常绿和落叶植物的比叶重存在显著差异（P<0.05），而落叶植物的比叶重在不同冠层高度存在显著差异（P<0.05），同一冠层，常绿植物比叶重显著高于落叶植物（P<0.05）；（2）69种植物的叶面积与叶生物量异速生长指数具有物种特异性，60.9%的物种叶面积与叶生物量呈等速生长关系；（3）不同冠层和生活型植物的叶面积与叶生物量呈等速生长关系，但其异速生长常数在不同冠层高度与生活型间存在差异。这些结果表明冠层高度和生活型未改变叶面积-生物量之间的等速生长关系，不支持"收益递减"假说。     

林业活动对区域森林生物量碳源汇格局的影响——以南平市为例

林业活动在一定程度上影响着区域森林的时空分布格局和碳汇/源功能。明确并量化林业活动对区域森林碳汇功能的影响与空间分布，对于区域森林碳汇提升和实现区域"碳中和"具有重要意义。以国家级生态示范区福建省南平市为例，以多期森林资源规划调查数据为基础，采用IPCC材积源-生物量法，基于土地利用类型的时空变化和林业活动类型划分，分类分析了南平市森林碳源和碳汇的空间分布特征，并量化了不同林业活动（一直保持为森林、人工造林、自然恢复、毁林和森林退化）对森林碳汇和碳源的影响。研究结果表明，2013年南平市森林碳储量总量为80.84Tg C，2020年森林碳储量总量增加至89.87Tg C，年均变化量为1.29Tg C/a （或4.73Tg CO₂/a）。平均胸径、公顷蓄积等林分因子是当前主要影响森林碳储量的因素。在其他影响因素中，暗红壤分布区的森林生物质碳密度较高而在水稻土分布区则较低；此外，高海拔、中等立地质量土地上的森林碳密度较高。对于不同林业活动，2013-2020年南平市一直保持为森林（森林经营）、自然恢复增加的天然林和人工造林分别使森林生物质碳储量增加了0.34Tg C/a、0.85Tg C/a和1.05Tg C/a，同期因毁林和森林退化导致森林生物质碳储量分别减少0.75Tg C/a和0.42Tg C/a，森林生物质碳储量净增加1.09Tg C/a （或3.98Tg CO₂/a），明显低于2013-2020森林碳储量净增量。对于土地利用变化较剧烈的区域，本文基于土地利用变化且区分林业活动路径的方法，能更准确地反映森林的碳汇和碳源及时空格局。2013-2020年间南平市一直保持为森林的生物质碳密度仅增长0.22Mg C hm^-2 a^-1，成熟林、过熟林面积占比增加使森林平均生长速率下降可能是主要原因。而同期通过自然恢复和人工造林使森林生物质碳密度分别增长4.00Mg C hm^-2 a^-1和4.10Mg C hm^-2 a^-1。优化龄组结构提升森林生长量、减少毁林和防止森林退化可以作为该区域未来森林增汇减排的有效举措。     

氮添加对亚热带常绿阔叶林土壤溶液化学特性的影响

土壤溶液被称作"土壤的血液"，是土壤中各种生物化学反应的中介物质，在外界环境发生变化时，土壤溶液化学成分能在其他土壤指标尚无变化之前对环境变化做出迅速响应。为了探索持续增加的大气氮（N）沉降对森林生态系统的影响，以华西雨屏区亚热带常绿阔叶林为对象，设置对照（CK，0 g m^-2 a^-1），低N（LN，5 g m^-2 a^-1），高N（HN，15 g m^-2 a^-1）三种N处理，通过人工施加硝酸铵（2017年9月起改施硝酸钠及氯化铵）的方法模拟N沉降增加情景，N处理42个月后，使用负压土壤溶液采样器定位收集A层（37-45 cm）及B层（52-60 cm）土壤溶液，并进行分析（每月1次，为期1 a）。结果表明：对照处理中A、B两层土壤溶液NO₃^-浓度达（3.94±0.77）mg/L、（4.27±1.13）mg/L，N添加显著提高两层土壤溶液NO₃^-浓度和B层NH₄⁺浓度；N添加显著降低土壤溶液pH，且显著增加Al³⁺浓度，Ca²⁺和Mg²⁺含量有增加趋势，但影响不显著；N处理使A层土壤溶液可溶性有机碳（DOC）浓度显著降低，对两层土壤溶液芳香化指数（AI）无显著影响；两层土壤溶液电导率（EC）及氧化还原电位（Eh）显著增加；此外，两层土壤溶液中许多化学成分均呈现极显著相关，特别是NO₃^-与EC相关系数达到了0.855。本研究中，对照处理极高的NO₃^-含量以及B层土壤溶液硝酸盐浓度高于A层，表明该亚热带常绿阔叶林N的有效性超过植物和微生物的总营养需求而发生淋溶，该生态系统已达到氮饱和状态，此外N添加会显著促进土壤酸化和铝离子活化，表层土壤溶液DOC的降低一定程度反映了凋落物分解受N添加的抑制作用，显著升高的氧化还原电位可能导致土壤中某些金属元素的迁移率降低。     

珊瑚礁生态修复研究进展

珊瑚礁生态系统有着很高的生物多样性和重要的生态功能。20世纪80年代以后全球范围内珊瑚礁的大面积退化引起了人们广泛的关注。简述了世界珊瑚礁资源现状,破坏原因,生态修复方法以及我国的珊瑚礁资源现状和修复策略等。国际上通用的生态修复策略主要是根据珊瑚的两种繁殖方式进行的,此外再配合人为的适度干扰,增加珊瑚的成活率。方法主要有：珊瑚移植、Gardening、人工渔礁、底质稳固、幼体附着等以及对相关利益者的宣传,海岸带的保护等。我国珊瑚礁退化严重,但是由于缺乏相关的科技资料报道和技术支持,缺乏系统的研究,使得珊瑚礁的生态修复成绩甚微,今后应在该领域开展更多的工作。     

内蒙古大兴安岭林草交错带景观动态分析

为加强对林草交错带生态系统的科学管理，进一步促林草资源保护与合理利用，迫切需要摸清交错带景观本底并分析其时空动态演化趋势。以大兴安岭林草交错带为研究对象，选取2000、2010年Landsat 5 TM影像和2018年Landsat 8 OLI影像，利用面向对象的决策树分类算法建立3期土地利用数据集，据此分析土地利用动态变化与景观格局演变特征，然后利用状态转换模拟模型STSM模拟研究区2025年的土地利用数据。结果表明：（1）2010年林地、草地、耕地、湿地、人工表面、盐碱地及荒漠和过火区面积占比分别为46.93%、31.66%、5.02%、13.73%、1.08%、1.55%和0.04%；2018年分别为46.89%、31.69%、4.99%、13.72%、1.15%、1.54%和0.02%。（2）景观尺度上，2010-2018年间林地面积减少43.55 km²，破碎化程度加剧、景观完整性降低、景观构成愈发复杂；草地面积增加38.11 km²，其景观完整性升高。（3）在现行趋势下，预测2025年研究区林地、草地、人工表面和过火区面积分别增加92.27、183.21、66.2 km²和10.25 km²；耕地、湿地和盐碱地及荒漠面积分别减少184.2、2.89 km²和164.84 km²。林火频发是导致研究区林地面积减少的主因，模拟的过火区面积增加提醒森林管理部门要严控林区用火风险并增强火灾扑救能力建设。后期"天然林保护"工程和"退牧还草"政策的实施是生态环境改善的主因。在制定区域发展战略时，需要充分平衡农业生产与城市扩张之间的竞争性，满足区域耕地红线的基本要求。     

亚龙湾珊瑚礁大型礁栖生物的群落结构及生态警示

鱼类和大型底栖生物等礁栖生物是珊瑚礁生态系统的重要组成部分,其群落信息是全面评价珊瑚礁生态系统健康状况的必要基础数据。基于录像样带法,分析了2018年12月底海南省三亚市亚龙湾珊瑚礁区17个站位礁栖鱼类和大型底栖生物的群落结构、数量分布及相似性,揭示了其中的生态警示,并提出相应的监管建议,旨在保护和恢复亚龙湾的珊瑚礁。结果表明:亚龙湾西岸及东排、西排共发现鱼类8科21属35种,以雀鲷科、隆头鱼科为主,平均密度为0.20尾·m^-2,金尾雀鲷、斑棘眶锯雀鲷和细鳞光鳃鱼为优势种;最近15年来,亚龙湾的鱼类资源持续衰退,目前已近于枯竭。另一方面,调查区的大型底栖生物以软珊瑚、大型底栖藻类、海百合和海胆为主,各类群的数量分布有所不同;造礁珊瑚的敌害生物小核果螺和长棘海星密度皆很低,目前尚不会对珊瑚礁构成威胁;整体而言,大型礁栖生物群落在亚龙湾西岸与东排、西排有较大的差异,间接反映出岛礁与岸礁环境存在差别,不过亚龙湾西岸湾口段的环境条件可能更接近岛礁;由于部分海区大型底栖藻类较多及可能存在的富营养化趋势,维持金尾雀鲷或其他植食性鱼类与藻类规模两者间的平衡,对恢复和保持亚龙湾珊瑚礁生态系统的健康尤为重要;同时,管控来自青梅河等的陆源污染,也是控制亚龙湾大型海藻增殖的关键;相比于海参,海百合对大型底栖藻类的依赖程度较低。调查区造礁珊瑚覆盖率与礁栖生物数量之间没有显著相关,可能与亚龙湾珊瑚礁退化严重及现存的种类以团块状造礁珊瑚为主,其构建的珊瑚礁生境空间异质性相对较低有关。为更好地保护亚龙湾的珊瑚礁,建议关注亚龙湾的水质,加强对捕鱼、潜水观光等旅游活动的监督管理,特别是应该立即实施长时间的渔业禁捕来恢复亚龙湾的渔业资源,并定期监控关键种群的数量变动。     

Distribution of recent outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) along the Great Barrier Reef: 1985–1986

A large survey program was conducted during 1985/1986 to determine the extent of activity of the crown-of-thorns starfish, Acanthaster planci, and its broad effects on the coral communities of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR). The perimeters of 228 reefs (about 9% of reefs in the GBR system) were surveyed within 1 year using rapid survey, manta tow techniques. These reefs encompassed the broad latitudinal and longitudinal gradients within the GBR. Approximately 27% (62 reefs) of the reefs surveyed had recently experienced (18%), or were experiencing (9%), an outbreak of the crown-of-thorns starfish. These outbreaks were mainly confined to reefs in the central third of the GBR (between Lizard Island and Townsville) and had affected, to varying degrees, approximately 65% of the reefs surveyed within this region. A greater proportion of mid-shelf reefs had experienced outbreaks than outer-shelf reefs, although this difference was not statistically significant. Of the small number of inner-shelf reefs surveyed, none had been recently affected by an outbreak. Large active outbreaks of starfish were reported on many of the reefs located off Townsville while much smaller outbreaks were found on several reefs at the southern end of the GBR, in the Swain Reef complex. Almost 86% of reefs currently experiencing an outbreak had moderate to high coral mortality over at least a third of their perimeters. Only 10% of reefs with active outbreaks had high coral mortality over most of their windward and leeward margins. A similar proportion of reefs had low to moderate coral mortality over less than a third of their perimeters.     

Homing behaviour by destructive crown-of-thorns starfish is triggered by local availability of coral prey

Corallivorous crown-of-thorns starfishes (Acanthaster spp.) can decimate coral assemblages on Indo-Pacific coral reefs during population outbreaks. While initial drivers of population irruptions leading to outbreaks remain largely unknown, subsequent dispersal of outbreaks appears coincident with depletion of coral prey. Here, we used in situ time-lapse photography to characterize movement of the Pacific crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster cf. solaris) in the northern and southern Great Barrier Reef in 2015, during the fourth recorded population outbreak of the starfish, but prior to widespread coral bleaching. Daily tracking of 58 individuals over a total of 1117 h revealed all starfish to move a minimum of 0.52 m, with around half of all tracked starfish showing negligible daily displacement (less than 1 m day⁻¹), ranging up to a maximum of 19 m day⁻¹. Movement was primarily nocturnal and daily displacement varied spatially with variation in local availability of Acropora spp., which is the preferred coral prey. Two distinct behavioural modes emerged: (i) homing movement, whereby tracked paths (as tested against a random-walk-model) involved short displacement distances following distinct ‘outward'' movement to Acropora prey (typically displaying ‘feeding scars'') and ‘homebound'' movement to nearby shelter; versus (ii) roaming movement, whereby individuals showed directional movement beyond initial tracking positions without return. Logistic modelling revealed more than half of all tracked starfish demonstrated homing when local abundance (percentage cover) of preferred Acropora coral prey was greater than 33%. Our results reveal facultative homing by Acanthaster with the prey-dependent behavioural switch to roaming forays providing a mechanism explaining localized aggregations and diffusion of these population irruptions as prey is locally depleted.     

Spatial resilience of the Great Barrier Reef under cumulative disturbance impacts

In the face of increasing cumulative effects from human and natural disturbances, sustaining coral reefs will require a deeper understanding of the drivers of coral resilience in space and time. Here we develop a high‐resolution, spatially explicit model of coral dynamics on Australia's Great Barrier Reef (GBR). Our model accounts for biological, ecological and environmental processes, as well as spatial variation in water quality and the cumulative effects of coral diseases, bleaching, outbreaks of crown‐of‐thorns starfish (Acanthaster cf. solaris), and tropical cyclones. Our projections reconstruct coral cover trajectories between 1996 and 2017 over a total reef area of 14,780 km², predicting a mean annual coral loss of ?0.67%/year mostly due to the impact of cyclones, followed by starfish outbreaks and coral bleaching. Coral growth rate was the highest for outer shelf coral communities characterized by digitate and tabulate Acropora spp. and exposed to low seasonal variations in salinity and sea surface temperature, and the lowest for inner‐shelf communities exposed to reduced water quality. We show that coral resilience (defined as the net effect of resistance and recovery following disturbance) was negatively related to the frequency of river plume conditions, and to reef accessibility to a lesser extent. Surprisingly, reef resilience was substantially lower within no‐take marine protected areas, however this difference was mostly driven by the effect of water quality. Our model provides a new validated, spatially explicit platform for identifying the reefs that face the greatest risk of biodiversity loss, and those that have the highest chances to persist under increasing disturbance regimes.     

No-take reserves protect coral reefs from predatory starfish

The crown-of-thorns starfish, Acanthaster planci, is a predator of corals that is a major management issue on coral reefs [1]. It occurs throughout the Indo–Pacific and shows boom–bust population dynamics with low background densities and intermittent outbreaks. Three waves of population outbreaks have affected Australia's Great Barrier Reef (GBR) since the 1960s. The waves of outbreaks appear to start 15°S [2] and progress southward through the central GBR (Figure 1A), causing major losses of living coral on many reefs across a large area and dwarfing losses from other disturbances such as storms or coral bleaching over the same period [3]. Humans can potentially influence starfish population dynamics by exploiting predators, though evidence to date is circumstantial. Extensive surveys in the GBR Marine Park (GBRMP) show that protection from fishing affects the frequency of outbreaks: the relative frequency of outbreaks on reefs that were open to fishing was 3.75 times higher than that on no-take reefs in the mid-shelf region of the GBR, where most outbreaks occur, and seven times greater on open reefs if all reefs were included. Although exploited fishes are unlikely to prey on starfish directly, trophic cascades could favour invertebrates that prey on juvenile starfish.     

Larvae of the coral eating crown‐of‐thorns starfish,Acanthaster planci in a warmer‐high CO2 ocean

Outbreaks of crown‐of‐thorns starfish (COTS), Acanthaster planci, contribute to major declines of coral reef ecosystems throughout the Indo‐Pacific. As the oceans warm and decrease in pH due to increased anthropogenic CO₂ production_, coral reefs are also susceptible to bleaching, disease and reduced calcification. The impacts of ocean acidification and warming may be exacerbated by COTS predation, but it is not known how this major predator will fare in a changing ocean. Because larval success is a key driver of population outbreaks, we investigated the sensitivities of larval A. planci to increased temperature (2–4 °C above ambient) and acidification (0.3–0.5 pH units below ambient) in flow‐through cross‐factorial experiments (3 temperature × 3 pH/pCO₂ levels). There was no effect of increased temperature or acidification on fertilization or very early development. Larvae reared in the optimal temperature (28 °C) were the largest across all pH treatments. Development to advanced larva was negatively affected by the high temperature treatment (30 °C) and by both experimental pH levels (pH 7.6, 7.8). Thus, planktonic life stages of A. planci may be negatively impacted by near‐future global change. Increased temperature and reduced pH had an additive negative effect on reducing larval size. The 30 °C treatment exceeded larval tolerance regardless of pH. As 30 °C sea surface temperatures may become the norm in low latitude tropical regions, poleward migration of A. planci may be expected as they follow optimal isotherms. In the absence of acclimation or adaptation, declines in low latitude populations may occur. Poleward migration will be facilitated by strong western boundary currents, with possible negative flow‐on effects on high latitude coral reefs. The contrasting responses of the larvae of A. planci and those of its coral prey to ocean acidification and warming are considered in context with potential future change in tropical reef ecosystems.     

Phylogeography of the Crown-of-Thorns Starfish in the Indian Ocean

Background

Understanding the limits and population dynamics of closely related sibling species in the marine realm is particularly relevant in organisms that require management. The crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci, recently shown to be a species complex of at least four closely related species, is a coral predator infamous for its outbreaks that have devastated reefs throughout much of its Indo-Pacific distribution.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In this first Indian Ocean-wide genetic study of a marine organism we investigated the genetic structure and inferred the paleohistory of the two Indian Ocean sister-species of Acanthaster planci using mitochondrial DNA sequence analyses. We suggest that the first of two main diversification events led to the formation of a Southern and Northern Indian Ocean sister-species in the late Pliocene-early Pleistocene. The second led to the formation of two internal clades within each species around the onset of the last interglacial. The subsequent demographic history of the two lineages strongly differed, the Southern Indian Ocean sister-species showing a signature of recent population expansion and hardly any regional structure, whereas the Northern Indian Ocean sister-species apparently maintained a constant size with highly differentiated regional groupings that were asymmetrically connected by gene flow.

Conclusions/Significance

Past and present surface circulation patterns in conjunction with ocean primary productivity were identified as the processes most likely to have shaped the genetic structure between and within the two Indian Ocean lineages. This knowledge will help to understand the biological or ecological differences of the two sibling species and therefore aid in developing strategies to manage population outbreaks of this coral predator in the Indian Ocean.     

Ocean warming and acidification have complex interactive effects on the dynamics of a marine fungal disease

Diseases threaten the structure and function of marine ecosystems and are contributing to the global decline of coral reefs. We currently lack an understanding of how climate change stressors, such as ocean acidification (OA) and warming, may simultaneously affect coral reef disease dynamics, particularly diseases threatening key reef-building organisms, for example crustose coralline algae (CCA). Here, we use coralline fungal disease (CFD), a previously described CCA disease from the Pacific, to examine these simultaneous effects using both field observations and experimental manipulations. We identify the associated fungus as belonging to the subphylum Ustilaginomycetes and show linear lesion expansion rates on individual hosts can reach 6.5 mm per day. Further, we demonstrate for the first time, to our knowledge, that ocean-warming events could increase the frequency of CFD outbreaks on coral reefs, but that OA-induced lowering of pH may ameliorate outbreaks by slowing lesion expansion rates on individual hosts. Lowered pH may still reduce overall host survivorship, however, by reducing calcification and facilitating fungal bio-erosion. Such complex, interactive effects between simultaneous extrinsic environmental stressors on disease dynamics are important to consider if we are to accurately predict the response of coral reef communities to future climate change.     

Coral adaptive capacity insufficient to halt global transition of coral reefs into net erosion under climate change

Projecting the effects of climate change on net reef calcium carbonate production is critical to understanding the future impacts on ecosystem function, but prior estimates have not included corals' natural adaptive capacity to such change. Here we estimate how the ability of symbionts to evolve tolerance to heat stress, or for coral hosts to shuffle to favourable symbionts, and their combination, may influence responses to the combined impacts of ocean warming and acidification under three representative concentration pathway (RCP) emissions scenarios (RCP2.6, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5). We show that symbiont evolution and shuffling, both individually and when combined, favours persistent positive net reef calcium carbonate production. However, our projections of future net calcium carbonate production (NCCP) under climate change vary both spatially and by RCP. For example, 19%–35% of modelled coral reefs are still projected to have net positive NCCP by 2050 if symbionts can evolve increased thermal tolerance, depending on the RCP. Without symbiont adaptive capacity, the number of coral reefs with positive NCCP drops to 9%–13% by 2050. Accounting for both symbiont evolution and shuffling, we project median positive NCPP of coral reefs will still occur under low greenhouse emissions (RCP2.6) in the Indian Ocean, and even under moderate emissions (RCP4.5) in the Pacific Ocean. However, adaptive capacity will be insufficient to halt the transition of coral reefs globally into erosion by 2050 under severe emissions scenarios (RCP8.5).     

Coral reef environmental science: truth versus the Cassandra syndrome

In 1970, coral reef science was warned that the crown-of-thorns starfish, Acanthaster planci, might cause the extinction of scleractinian corals in the Pacific Ocean. Now, 20 years later we can fortunately say that this alarm was almost certainly too severe. Many reefs were devastated by the starfish, but none are extinct, none have disappeared and many are in various stages of recovery. But now in the 1990's a new alarm is being sounded. This time the concern is over widespread destruction of coral reefs by elevated surface temperatures. Once again a few scientists have issued a dire warning that these events may represent a harbinger of ocean warming caused by the Greenhouse Effect. Has not Acanthaster taught coral reef science a lesson? The debate is far from over but this time the mood in general is not one of over-reaction. This time the Cassandras will be tested by the truth of careful experimentation, long-term monitoring and objective interpretation. Coral reef science appears to have come of age.     

Geological evidence for recurring outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish: a reassessment from an ecological perspective

The abundance and distribution of Acanthaster planci skeletal elements in reef sediments have been presented as evidence that population outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish on the Great Barrier Reef are not a new occurrence, but have been an integral part of the ecosystem for at least 7000 years on some reefs (Walbran et al. 1989a). Reassessment of the evidence shows that these claims are not justified and challenges the validity of several assumptions that are crucial to their thesis that outbreaks have been a recurrent phenomenon on the Great Barrier Reef. These are: (i) that the majority of starfish from outbreak populations remain and die on the host reef and that their skeletal elements add to the reef sediment, (ii) that reefs which have had recent A. planci outbreaks can be discriminated from those which have not by the abundance of starfish skeletal remains in recent sediments, (iii) that outbreaks will significantly increase the number of skeletal elements in reef sediments above normal background levels and, (iv) that the age of individual skeletal elements can be predicted from the age of their surrounding sediment or their depth in the sediment pile. We conclude that Walbran et al. do not have sufficient data to infer the outbreak history of A. planci from the sediment recored and that there are alternative interpretations of their findings. The possibility cannot be discounted that destructive population outbreaks of A. planci witnessed on the Great Barrier Reef since 1960 are unprecedented. The question of whether A. planci outbreaks are a naturally recurring phenomena or a novel, more recent development remains unanswered.