肠粘膜上皮细胞在天然免疫中的作用

粘膜免疫是机体防御系统的主要成分。致病性细菌侵入机体后,首先遭遇到天然免疫的抵抗,随后产生获得性免疫,两共同执行机体的防御功能,消灭入侵细菌。最近的研究表明上皮细胞对细菌感染有重要的免疫调节作用,在天然免疫与获得性免疫防御机制中起重要作用。本重点介绍肠上皮细胞在天然免疫中的作用。     

表面活性物质相关蛋白表达的调控研究进展

特异性的肺表面活性物质相关蛋白（SP）包括亲水性的SP－A、SP－D和疏水性的SP－B、SP－C。它们的表达与合成受众多生理、病理因素影响。本文综述了该领域的研究进展。1．SP表达的组织细胞特异性调控：只有肺内某些细胞（肺泡11型细胞、Clara细胞等）能合分泌SP,这可能是由SP基因中特定序列决定的,如SP－B基因的细胞特异性表达的调控成分。2．SP表达的发育期调控：SP基因属发育控制基因家族。在人类妊娠前3mon胎肺中,SP基本不表达：妊娠15－18wk时,气管、支气管上皮细胞即可见SP－B、SP－CmRNAs和表达蛋白,它们可能比SP－A出现早：妊娠19－20wk时可见SP－AmRNA和表达蛋白,胎肺组织在体外无激素条件下培养可很快诱导SP表达,在妊娠后3mon内,各SPmRNAs及表达蛋白水平与磷脂水平平行升高,也与SP降低表面张力的特性逐渐增强相关,羊水中可检出这些蛋白,板层体的出现与SP－B的表达密切相关,而比SP－A的表达早,胎肺发育过程中SPmRNAs增加至少部分是由于其基因转录率升高,可能同时也与翻译增加有关。3．糖皮质激素对SP表达的调控：糖皮质激素对SP－A表达的调控极复杂,且与剂量、发育期、作用时间及动物种属有关,总的来讲,在胎肺移植培养中,激素浓度≤10nmol/L时,能刺激SP－AmRNA和蛋白表达增强;浓度≥1μmol／L,则抑制其表达,在成人肺腺癌细胞系H820中也有这种对糖皮质激素的双相反应。地塞米松能刺激人胎肺移植培养和H820、H441细胞系中SP－B和SP－CmRNAs表达增强。给孕26d母兔倍他米松,可使胎兔肺内SP－BmRNA水平升高接近成年兔水平,但SP－CmRNA则明显降低。4．其它调控SP表达的因素：在人和兔胎肺移植培养中,cAMP及其类似物二丁酰基cAMP、8－溴cAMP和2－溴cAMP均可刺激SP－AmRNA和蛋白表达增加。ATP和cAMP均能刺激离体灌注大翻译效率或翻译后因素的改变可能参与了ATP和cAMP所致SP－A合成的增加。表皮生长因子和干扰素γ可使人胎肺移植培养中SP－AmRNA和蛋白水平呈剂量依赖性增加。角化细胞生长因子能促进培养的成年大鼠11型细胞中SP－A和SP－BmRNAs表达。转化生长因子能抑制人胎肺移植培养中SP－AmRNA和蛋白的表达,下调培养11型细胞中SP－CmRNA表达。胰岛素可使人胎肺移植培养中SP－A蛋白水平呈剂量依赖性下降,肿瘤坏死因子α可降低人肺腺癌细胞系中SP－A和SP－BmRNAs水平,且有剂量依赖关系。性激素不影响SP表达。总之,SP表达的调控可能是许多因素在不同水平综合作用的结果。     

泛素化调控抗病毒天然免疫的研究进展

天然免疫是宿主防御病原微生物入侵的第一道防线,其活化主要通过天然免疫细胞上的模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptors, PRRs)识别病原微生物上相对保守的相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecular patterns, PAMPs).病毒相关的核酸成分可以被机体Toll样受体(Toll-like receptors, TLRs)、维甲酸诱导基因Ⅰ受体(RIG-I-like receptors, RLRs)以及胞浆DNA受体(cytoplasmic DNA sensors)等识别,通过一系列复杂的细胞信号通路诱导Ⅰ型干扰素(typeⅠinterferon)及炎症因子的表达,从而激发机体抗病毒反应.泛素化修饰是细胞内广泛存在的蛋白质翻译后修饰方式,在宿主防御病原微生物感染的动态调控过程中发挥着重要的作用.已有大量文献报道,天然免疫抗病毒信号通路中的多个关键接头分子可发生泛素化修饰,进而调控机体抗病毒免疫应答反应.本文综述了泛素化修饰在抗病毒天然免疫中的作用及其调控机制.     

泛素样蛋白ISG15在抗病毒天然免疫中的作用

干扰素刺激基因15(ISG15)编码的蛋白是抗病毒天然免疫通路中的重要调节因子,病毒感染和干扰素刺激均可强烈诱导ISG15的表达。ISG15是最早发现的泛素样蛋白,可对细胞内多种蛋白进行修饰并调节蛋白功能,但不介导蛋白质的降解,在机体抗病毒天然免疫反应中发挥重要作用,其机制尚未完全明确。近几年对ISG15的研究有所突破,发现了ISG15在抗病毒天然免疫反应中的新功能。我们简要概述了泛素样蛋白ISG15的概况、修饰酶系统及ISG15在抗病毒天然免疫反应中功能的研究进展。     

干扰素的信号传导和抗病毒效应机制

干扰素是一种具有抗病毒、抗增殖和免疫调节功能的细胞因子,它在宿主天然免疫防御中起着重要的作用。干扰素诱导的信号通路除了最初的Jak-Stat途径以外,很多新发现的信号途径对于干扰素反应也是必需的。干扰素反应最终导致抗病毒的效应蛋白通路,包括2′,5′-寡聚腺苷酸合成酶、蛋白激酶、ISG15等途径。这些效应蛋白通过抑制病毒转录、降解病毒RNA、抑制翻译和修饰蛋白的功能来控制病毒复制的过程。     

补体系统基因单核苷酸多态性及其与疾病的关系

天然免疫系统在病原微生物入侵的初始阶段发挥着重要的防御作用,其中补体系统可快速识别、杀伤和清除病原微生物,对疾病的发生、发展和转归起着重要的作用。文章综述了补体系统各成份单核苷酸多态性与疾病的关联研究进展,在DNA水平上揭示了补体系统遗传多态性对疾病发生、发展和转归的影响,对疾病的预防和个体化治疗具有重要的意义。     

前列腺素E_1对肺的细胞保护作用

本文观察到体外培养下,前列腺素E_1 可降低豚鼠巨噬细胞和嗜酸粒细胞对肺细胞的细胞毒作用,可抑制肺泡巨噬细胞的吞噬活性,并能降低标记肺细胞的自发[~3H]释放量。前列腺素E_1 对炎症效应细胞的抑制作用和对肺细胞的保护作用有显著的剂量-效应关系。鉴于巨噬细胞在机体防御和炎症反应中的作用极为重要,而激活巨噬细胞可以释放前列腺素E_1,推论在肺部疾病发展过程中,由激活巨噬细胞释放前列腺素使局部浓度增高时,可以负反馈地调整效应细胞的活力,并对正常肺细胞产生细胞保护作用,以减轻炎症效应细胞对肺组织的伤害。     

细菌荚膜多糖的抵御对抗微生物多肽的作用[英]／Campos MA…／／Infect Imman．

天然免疫系统在机体抵抗微生物的过程中起到重要作用,抗微生物多肽和蛋白(antimicrobial peptides and proteins,AP)是这一系统中的重要防御物质。AP具有多种活性,可抵御革兰阴性和阳性细菌、真菌和一些包膜病毒的致病作用。革兰阴性菌能发生一系列变化来抵抗AP的活性。如大肠埃希菌等可拥有1种外膜蛋白OmpT,能分解蛋白质以清除AP;又如淋病奈瑟菌和小肠结肠炎耶尔森菌可依赖能量将AP泵出细胞外。     

人防御素分子生物学研究进展及其应用

人防御素(human defensins)是一类内源性阳离子抗微生物肽,在天然免疫防御中起重要作用,也能增强继承性免疫应答.它具有强烈的广谱抗微生物活性,并且不易对微生物产生耐药性.对人防御素的分子生物学特性方面的研究进展作一综述,重点在于比较和探讨其结构的异同,并对其应用和发展的前景进行展望.     

内源性抗生素肽──天然免疫的重要介质

天然免疫在发生学上是古老的抗感染防御系统。由于对以克隆选择为基础的获得性免疫研究的长足进展,人们把主要注意力集中在获得性免疫上,以致忽略了天然免疫的重要性,甚至常常把天然免疫系统看成是一个"废弃"的器官,天然免疫的研究似乎已不再叫做"免疫学"。新近对天然免疫分子机制研究的进展以及天然免疫与获得性免疫反应之间重要功能联系的发现,上述传统观念受到挑战［１－４］。在分子水平上认识天然免疫机制,可能为一些重要感染性疾病的防治开辟新路。内源性抗生素肽是近１０年来在天然免疫分子机制研究方面所获得的重要进展之一［…     

The role of nitric oxide in lung innate immunity: Modulation by surfactant protein-A

Surfactant protein A (SP-A) and alveolar macrophages are essential components of lung innate immunity. Alveolar macrophages phagocytose and kill pathogens by the production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. In particular, peroxynitrite, the reaction product of superoxide and nitric oxide, appears to have potent antimicrobial effects. SP-A stimulates alveolar macrophages to phagocytose and kill pathogens and is important in host defense. However, SP-A has diverse effects on both innate and adaptive immunity, and may stimulate or inhibit immune function. SP-A appears to mediate toxic or protective effects depending on the immune status of the lung. In contrast to mouse or rat cells, it has been difficult to demonstrate nitric oxide production by human macrophages. We have recently demonstrated that human macrophages produce nitric oxide and use it to kill Klebsiella pneumoniae. SP-A either stimulates or inhibits this process, depending on the activation state of the macrophage. Given its diverse effects on immune function, SP-A may prove to be an effective therapy for both infectious and inflammatory diseases of the lung.     

The role of nitric oxide in lung innate immunity: modulation by surfactant protein-A

Surfactant protein A (SP-A) and alveolar macrophages are essential components of lung innate immunity. Alveolar macrophages phagocytose and kill pathogens by the production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. In particular, peroxynitrite, the reaction product of superoxide and nitric oxide, appears to have potent antimicrobial effects. SP-A stimulates alveolar macrophages to phagocytose and kill pathogens and is important in host defense. However, SP-A has diverse effects on both innate and adaptive immunity, and may stimulate or inhibit immune function. SP-A appears to mediate toxic or protective effects depending on the immune status of the lung. In contrast to mouse or rat cells, it has been difficult to demonstrate nitric oxide production by human macrophages. We have recently demonstrated that human macrophages produce nitric oxide and use it to kill Klebsiella pneumoniae. SP-A either stimulates or inhibits this process, depending on the activation state of the macrophage. Given its diverse effects on immune function, SP-A may prove to be an effective therapy for both infectious and inflammatory diseases of the lung.     

The impact of surfactant protein-A on ozone-induced changes in the mouse bronchoalveolar lavage proteome

Background  

Ozone is a major component of air pollution. Exposure to this powerful oxidizing agent can cause or exacerbate many lung conditions, especially those involving innate immunity. Surfactant protein-A (SP-A) plays many roles in innate immunity by participating directly in host defense as it exerts opsonin function, or indirectly via its ability to regulate alveolar macrophages and other innate immune cells. The mechanism(s) responsible for ozone-induced pathophysiology, while likely related to oxidative stress, are not well understood.     

Pulmonary surfactant protein A up-regulates activity of the mannose receptor,a pattern recognition receptor expressed on human macrophages

Inhaled particulates and microbes are continually cleared by a complex array of lung innate immune determinants, including alveolar macrophages (AMs). AMs are unique cells with an enhanced capacity for phagocytosis that is due, in part, to increased activity of the macrophage mannose receptor (MR), a pattern recognition receptor for various microorganisms. The local factors that "shape" AM function are not well understood. Surfactant protein A (SP-A), a major component of lung surfactant, participates in the innate immune response and can enhance phagocytosis. Here we show that SP-A selectively enhances MR expression on human monocyte-derived macrophages, a process involving both the attached sugars and collagen-like domain of SP-A. The newly expressed MR is functional. Monocyte-derived macrophages on an SP-A substrate demonstrated enhanced pinocytosis of mannose BSA and phagocytosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis lipoarabinomannan-coated microspheres. The newly expressed MR likely came from intracellular pools because: 1) up-regulation of the MR by SP-A occurred by 1 h, 2) new protein synthesis was not necessary for MR up-regulation, and 3) pinocytosis of mannose BSA via MR recycling was increased. AMs from SP-A(-/-) mice have reduced MR expression relative to SP-A(+/+). SP-A up-regulation of MR activity provides a mechanism for enhanced phagocytosis of microbes by AMs, thereby enhancing lung host defense against extracellular pathogens or, paradoxically, enhancing the potential for intracellular pathogens to enter their intracellular niche. SP-A contributes to the alternative activation state of the AM in the lung.     

Tissue distribution of surfactant proteins A and D in the mouse.

Surfactant proteins A and D, collagen-like lectins (collectins), were first isolated from the lung. In the lung, SP-A and SP-D have roles in surfactant homeostasis and innate immunity. In this study we show that SP-A and SP-D mRNA can be detected in a significant number of non-pulmonary tissues but the proteins have a more limited distribution. SP-D protein was detected in lung, uterus, ovary, and lacrimal gland, whereas SP-A protein was detected only in the lung. The results suggest that SP-D participates in mucosal immunity throughout the body.     

Lung surfactant and reactive oxygen-nitrogen species: antimicrobial activity and host-pathogen interactions

Surfactant protein (SP) A and SP-D are members of the collectin superfamily. They are widely distributed within the lung, are capable of antigen recognition, and can discern self versus nonself. SPs recognize bacteria, fungi, and viruses by binding mannose and N-acetylglucosamine residues on microbial cell walls. SP-A has been shown to stimulate the respiratory burst as well as nitric oxide synthase expression by alveolar macrophages. Although nitric oxide (NO.) is a well-recognized microbicidal product of macrophages, the mechanism(s) by which NO. contributes to host defense remains undefined. The purpose of this symposium was to present current research pertaining to the specific role of SPs and reactive oxygen-nitrogen species in innate immunity. The symposium focused on the mechanisms of NO*-mediated toxicity for bacterial, human, and animal models of SP-A- and NO.-mediated pathogen killing, microbial defense mechanisms against reactive oxygen-nitrogen species, specific examples and signaling pathways involved in the SP-A-mediated killing of pulmonary pathogens, the structure and binding of SP-A and SP-D to bacterial targets, and the immunoregulatory functions of SP-A.     

Surfactant protein A modulates the differentiation of murine bone marrow-derived dendritic cells

Surfactant protein A (SP-A) is an innate immune molecule that regulates pathogen clearance and lung inflammation. SP-A modulates innate immune functions such as phagocytosis, cytokine production, and chemotaxis; however, little is known about regulation of adaptive immunity by SP-A. Dendritic cells (DCs) are the most potent antigen-presenting cell with the unique capacity to activate naive T cells and initiate adaptive immunity. The goal of this study was to test the hypothesis that SP-A regulates the differentiation of immature DCs into potent T cell stimulators. The data show that incubation of immature DCs for 24 h with SP-A inhibits basal- and LPS-mediated expression of major histocompatibility complex class II and CD86. Stimulation of immature DCs by SP-A also inhibits the allostimulation of T cells, enhances dextran endocytosis, and alters DC chemotaxis toward RANTES and secondary lymphoid tissue chemokine. The effects on DC phenotype and function are similar for the structurally homologous C1q, but not for SP-D. These studies demonstrate that SP-A participates in the adaptive immune response by modulating important immune functions of DCs.     

Pulmonary collectins play distinct roles in host defense against Mycobacterium avium

Pulmonary collectins, surfactant protein A (SP-A) and surfactant protein D (SP-D), play important roles in the innate immunity of the lung. Mycobacterium avium is one of the well-known opportunistic pathogens that can replicate within macrophages. We examined the effects of pulmonary collectins in host defense against M. avium infection achieved via direct interaction between bacteria and collectins. Although both pulmonary collectins bound to M. avium in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner, these collectins revealed distinct ligand-binding specificity and biological activities. SP-A and SP-D bound to a methoxy group containing lipid and lipoarabinomannan, respectively. Binding of SP-D but not SP-A resulted in agglutination of M. avium. A chimeric protein with the carbohydrate recognition domain of SP-D, which chimera revealed a bouquet-like arrangement similar to SP-A, also agglutinated M. avium. The ligand specificity of the carbohydrate recognition domain of SP-D seems to be necessary for agglutination activity. The binding of SP-A strongly inhibited the growth of M. avium in culture media. Although pulmonary collectins did not increase membrane permeability of M. avium, they attenuated the metabolic rate of the bacteria. Observations under a scanning electron microscope revealed that SP-A almost completely covers bacterial surfaces, whereas SP-D binds to certain areas like scattered dots. These observations suggest that a distinct binding pattern of collectins correlates with the difference of their biological activities. Furthermore, the number of bacteria phagocytosed by macrophages was significantly increased in the presence of SP-D. These data indicate that pulmonary collectins play critical roles in host defense against M. avium.     

Recombinant human SP-A1 and SP-A2 proteins have different carbohydrate-binding characteristics

Surfactant protein (SP)-A is a member of the collectin family of proteins and plays a role in innate host defense of the lung. SP-A binds to the carbohydrates of lung pathogens via its calcium-dependant carbohydrate-binding domain. Native human alveolar SP-A consists of two distinct gene products: SP-A1 and SP-A2; however, only SP-A2 is expressed in the submucosal glands of the conducting airways. The function of the isolated SP-A2 protein is unknown. We hypothesized that SP-A1 and SP-A2 might have different carbohydrate-binding properties. In this study, we characterized the carbohydrate-binding specificities of native human alveolar SP-A and recombinant human SP-A1 and SP-A2 in the presence of either 1 or 5 mM Ca(2+). We found that all of the SP-A proteins bind carbohydrates but with different affinities. All of the SP-A proteins bind to fucose with the greatest affinity. SP-A2 binds with a higher affinity to a wider variety of sugars than SP-A1 at either 1 or 5 mM Ca(2+). These findings are suggestive that SP-A2 may interact with a greater variety of pathogens than native SP-A.     

Surfactant protein A binds Mycoplasma pneumoniae with high affinity and attenuates its growth by recognition of disaturated phosphatidylglycerols

Surfactant Protein A (SP-A) is an abundant, multifunctional lectin that resides within the bronchoalveolar compartment of the lung and plays an important role in the innate immunity of the organ. Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a human pathogen that resides in the same compartment as SP-A, and we examined the interaction between the two. Preparations of human and rat SP-A recognized the mycoplasma with high affinity in the presence of Ca(2+), exhibiting apparent K(')(d) values in the nanomolar range. Membranes prepared from the microbe also bound human and rat SP-A with similar characteristics and affinity to the intact cells. The ligand for SP-A was insensitive to proteolysis. Lipid extracts prepared from the mycoplasma, bound SP-A with high affinity when examined by ligand blot analysis. These lipid extracts were also potent competitive inhibitors (IC(50) = 0.2 nM) of human SP-A binding to mycoplasma membranes. The major lipid ligands for the protein identified by mass spectrometry are a group of disaturated phosphatidylglycerols. The addition of SP-A to cultures of M. pneumoniae markedly attenuated the growth of the organism assessed by colony formation, metabolic activity, and DNA replication. The bacteriostatic effects of SP-A were reversed by dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol. These findings demonstrate that human SP-A can play a direct role in antibody-independent immunity to M. pneumoniae by interacting with lipid ligands expressed on the surface of the organism and implicate SP-A in the immediate host response to the bacteria.