Cell lineage patterns and homeotic gene activity during Antirrhinum flower development

Background: Homeotic genes controlling the identity of flower organs have been characterized in several plant species. To determine whether cells expressing these genes are specified to follow particular developmental fates, we have studied the pattern of cell lineages in developing flowers of Antirrhinum. Each flower has four whorls of organs, and progenitor cells of these can be marked at particular stages of development using a temperature-sensitive transposon. This allows the cell lineages in the flower to be followed, as well as giving information about rates of cell division.Results We show here that, prior to the emergence of organ primordia, cells in the floral meristem have not been allocated organ identities. After this time, lineage restrictions arise between whorls, correlating with the onset of expression of genes that control organ identity. A further lineage restriction appears slightly later on, between the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the petal. Our results further suggest that the rates of cell division fluctuate during key stages of meristem development, perhaps as a consequence of meristem-identity gene expression.Conclusion The patterns of lineage restriction and organ-identity gene expression in early floral meristems are consistent with some cells being allocated specific identities at about this stage of development. Plant cells cannot move relative to each other, so lineage restrictions in plants may reflect particular orientations and/or rates of growth at boundary regions.     

Restoration of stamen development and production of functional pollen in an alloplasmic CMS tobacco line by ectopic expression of the Arabidopsis thaliana SUPERMAN gene

The alloplasmic male-sterile tobacco line Nta(rep)S, combining the nucleus of Nicotiana tabacum with the cytoplasm of Nicotiana repanda, exhibits cadastral-type anomalies due to a fusion of several stamens with the pistil. These anomalies share similarities with Arabidopsis superman mutants. SUPERMAN (SUP) is a cadastral gene controlling the boundary between whorls 3 (androecium) and 4 (gynoecium). Thus we hypothesized that the expression of the tobacco SUP orthologue might be impaired in the alloplasmic Nta(rep)S line, and that the deficiency could be complemented by the Arabidopsis SUP gene. Here we show that the ectopic expression of SUP in the alloplasmic male-sterile tobacco line Nta(rep)S significantly increases the frequency of flowers possessing free stamens, inducing the recovery of a proper structure for whorls 3 and 4. Furthermore, flowers of transgenic plants show a significant improvement of the morphology of stamens, and more particularly of the anthers, which are able to produce few but functional pollen. The data show that ectopic expression of Arabidopsis SUP reactivates the regulatory cascade of anther development. The plausible causes of the developmental defects of anthers in the alloplasmic male-sterile tobacco line are discussed in relation to the model of regulation of the Arabidopsis SUP gene.     

NO APICAL MERISTEM (MtNAM) regulates floral organ identity and lateral organ separation in Medicago truncatula

? The CUP-SHAPED COTYLEDON (CUC)/NO APICAL MERISTEM (NAM) family of genes control boundary formation and lateral organ separation, which is critical for proper leaf and flower patterning. However, most downstream targets of CUC/NAM genes remain unclear. ? In a forward screen of the tobacco retrotransposon1 (Tnt1) insertion population in Medicago truncatula, we isolated a weak allele of the no-apical-meristem mutant mtnam-2. Meanwhile, we regenerated a mature plant from the null allele mtnam-1. These materials allowed us to extensively characterize the function of MtNAM and its downstream genes. ? MtNAM is highly expressed in vegetative shoot buds and inflorescence apices, specifically at boundaries between the shoot apical meristem and leaf/flower primordia. Mature plants of the regenerated null allele and the weak allele display remarkable floral phenotypes: floral whorls and organ numbers are reduced and the floral organ identity is compromised. Microarray and quantitative RT-PCR analyses revealed that all classes of floral homeotic genes are down-regulated in mtnam mutants. Mutations in MtNAM also lead to fused cotyledons and leaflets of the compound leaf as well as a defective shoot apical meristem. ? Our results revealed that MtNAM shares the role of CUC/NAM family genes in lateral organ separation and compound leaf development, and is also required for floral organ identity and development.     

Down-regulation of TM29, a tomato SEPALLATA homolog,causes parthenocarpic fruit development and floral reversion

We have characterized the tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) MADS box gene TM29 that shared a high amino acid sequence homology to the Arabidopsis SEP1, 2, and 3 (SEPALLATA1, 2, and 3) genes. TM29 showed similar expression profiles to SEP1, with accumulation of mRNA in the primordia of all four whorls of floral organs. In addition, TM29 mRNA was detected in inflorescence and vegetative meristems. To understand TM29 function, we produced transgenic tomato plants in which TM29 expression was down-regulated by either cosuppression or antisense techniques. These transgenic plants produced aberrant flowers with morphogenetic alterations in the organs of the inner three whorls. Petals and stamens were green rather than yellow, suggesting a partial conversion to a sepalloid identity. Stamens and ovaries were infertile, with the later developing into parthenocarpic fruit. Ectopic shoots with partially developed leaves and secondary flowers emerged from the fruit. These shoots resembled the primary transgenic flowers and continued to produce parthenocarpic fruit and additional ectopic shoots. Based on the temporal and spatial expression pattern and transgenic phenotypes, we propose that TM29 functions in floral organ development, fruit development, and maintenance of floral meristem identity in tomato.     

NFL1, a Nicotiana tabacum LEAFY-like gene, controls meristem initiation and floral structure.

The Arabidopsis LEAFY (LFY) gene product induces cells of the shoot apical meristem to differentiate into floral primordia by acting as a master regulator of downstream floral homeotic genes. Tobacco, an allotetraploid, possesses two homologous genes, NFL1 and NFL2, which are 97% identical in amino acid sequence and share 73% amino acid sequence identity with LFY. In order to test whether the highly conserved tobacco orthologue, NFL1, shares functional identity with LFY, we created transgenic tobacco and Arabidopsis plants that constitutively express the NFL1 cDNA. Our results indicate that NFL1 plays a critical role in the allocation of meristematic cells that differentiate lateral structures such as leaves and branches, thereby determining the architecture of the wild-type tobacco shoot. NFL1 also regulates floral meristem development and does so through the control of cell proliferation as well as cell identity. Surprisingly, unlike ectopic LFY expression, which can act as a floral trigger, ectopic NFL1 expression does not promote severe precocious flowering in Nicotiana tabacum suggesting that variations in amino acid sequence among members of the LFY-like gene family have led to divergence in the functional roles of these genes.     

Developmental programmes in floral organ formation

In contrast to animals, organogenesis in plants is continuous, allowing development in response to intrinsic and extrinsic signals. Organs arise from primordia formed on the flanks of meristems. The apical meristem produces primordia that acquire leaf identity, while floral meristems form primordia which develop into four organ types: sepals, petals, stamens and carpels. The production of mature organs involves two distinct processes, the initiation of organ primordia and the establishment of meristem, primordia and cell identities. Here we concentrate on floral organogenesis in Arabidopsis and examine the extent to which these processes utilize similar control mechanisms and regulatory molecules.     

A putative lipase gene EXTRA GLUME1 regulates both empty-glume fate and spikelet development in rice

Recent studies have shown that molecular control of inner floral organ identity appears to be largely conserved between monocots and dicots, but little is known regarding the molecular mechanism underlying development of the monocot outer floral organ, a unique floral structure in grasses. In this study, we report the cloning of the rice EXTRA GLUME1 ( EG1 ) gene, a putative lipase gene that specifies empty-glume fate and floral meristem determinacy. In addition to affecting the identity and number of empty glumes, mutations in EG1 caused ectopic floral organs to be formed at each organ whorl or in extra ectopic whorls. Iterative glume-like structures or new floral organ primordia were formed in the presumptive region of the carpel, resulting in an indeterminate floral meristem. EG1 is expressed strongly in inflorescence primordia and weakly in developing floral primordia. We also found that the floral meristem and organ identity gene OsLHS1 showed altered expression with respect to both pattern and levels in the eg1 mutant, and is probably responsible for the pleiotropic floral defects in eg1 . As a putative class III lipase that functionally differs from any known plant lipase, EG1 reveals a novel pathway that regulates rice empty-glume fate and spikelet development.     

Ternary complex formation between the MADS-box proteins SQUAMOSA, DEFICIENS and GLOBOSA is involved in the control of floral architecture in Antirrhinum majus.

In Antirrhinum, floral meristems are established by meristem identity genes. Floral meristems give rise to floral organs in whorls, with their identity established by combinatorial activities of organ identity genes. Double mutants of the floral meristem identity gene SQUAMOSA and organ identity genes DEFICIENS or GLOBOSA produce flowers in which whorled patterning is partially lost. In yeast, SQUA, DEF and GLO proteins form ternary complexes via their C-termini, which in gel-shift assays show increased DNA binding to CArG motifs compared with DEF/GLO heterodimers or SQUA/SQUA homodimers. Formation of ternary complexes by plant MADS-box factors increases the complexity of their regulatory functions and might be the molecular basis for establishment of whorled phyllotaxis and combinatorial interactions of floral organ identity genes.     

APETALA1 启动子驱动AtIPT4 在转基因拟南芥中表达导致花和花器官发育异常

细胞分裂素对拟南芥(Arab idopsis thal iana)花分生组织细胞的分裂和分化具有重要作用。本研究利用APETALA1(AP1)特异启动子在花分生组织和第1、2轮花器官中表达细胞分裂素合成酶(isopentyl trans ferase, IPT)基因IPT4, 研究细胞分裂素对花和花器官发育的影响。在pAP1::IPT4转基因植株中出现了花密集和花器官数目增多等现象。原位杂交和GUS组织染色结果发现, 在pAP1::IPT4转基因植株中, 花分生组织特征决定基因LEAFY (LFY)与花器官特征决定基因AP1、PISTILLATA (PI )和AGAMOUS (AG)的表达量均有不同程度的提高。研究结果表明在拟南芥中表达pAP1::IPT4影响其花和花器官的正常发育。     

APETALA1启动子驱动AtIPT4在转基因拟南芥中表达导致花和花器官发育异常

细胞分裂素对拟南芥（Arabidopsis thaliana）花分生组织细胞的分裂和分化具有重要作用。本研究利用APETALA1（AP1）特异启动子在花分生组织和第1、2轮花器官中表达细胞分裂素合成酶（isopentyl transferase,IPT）基因IPT4,研究细胞分裂素对花和花器官发育的影响。在pAP1∷IPT4转基因植株中出现了花密集和花器官数目增多等现象。原位杂交和GUS组织染色结果发现,在pAP1∷IPT4转基因植株中,花分生组织特征决定基因LEAFY（LFY）与花器官特征决定基因AP1、PISTILLATA（PI）和AGAMOUS（AG）的表达量均有不同程度的提高。研究结果表明在拟南芥中表达pAP1∷IPT4影响其花和花器官的正常发育。     

Separable roles of UFO during floral development revealed by conditional restoration of gene function

The UNUSUAL FLORAL ORGANS (UFO) gene is required for several aspects of floral development in Arabidopsis including specification of organ identity in the second and third whorls and the proper pattern of primordium initiation in the inner three whorls. UFO is expressed in a dynamic pattern during the early phases of flower development. Here we dissect the role of UFO by ubiquitously expressing it in ufo loss-of-function flowers at different developmental stages and for various durations using an ethanol-inducible expression system. The previously known functions of UFO could be separated and related to its expression at specific stages of development. We show that a 24- to 48-hour period of UFO expression from floral stage 2, before any floral organs are visible, is sufficient to restore normal petal and stamen development. The earliest requirement for UFO is during stage 2, when the endogenous UFO gene is transiently expressed in the centre of the wild-type flower and is required to specify the initiation patterns of petal, stamen and carpel primordia. Petal and stamen identity is determined during stages 2 or 3, when UFO is normally expressed in the presumptive second and third whorl. Although endogenous UFO expression is absent from the stamen whorl from stage 4 onwards, stamen identity can be restored by UFO activation up to stage 6. We also observed floral phenotypes not observed in loss-of-function or constitutive gain-of-function backgrounds, revealing additional roles of UFO in outgrowth of petal primordia.     

Spatial distribution of the RABBIT EARS protein and effects of its ectopic expression in Arabidopsis thaliana flowers

In many flowering plants, flowers consist of two peripheral organs, sepals and petals, occurring in outer two whorls, and two inner reproductive organs, stamens and carpels. These organs are arranged in a concentric pattern in a floral meristem, and the organ identity is established by the combined action of floral homeotic genes expressed along the whorls. Floral organ primordia arise at fixed positions in the floral meristem within each whorl. The RABBIT EARS (RBE) gene is transcribed in the petal precursor cells and primordia, and regulates petal initiation and early growth in Arabidopsis thaliana. We investigated the spatial and temporal expression pattern of a RBE protein fused to the green fluorescent protein (GFP). Expression of the GFP:RBE fusion gene under the RBE cis-regulatory genomic fragment rescues the rbe petal defects, indicating that the fusion protein is functional. The GFP signal is located to the cells where RBE is transcribed, suggesting that RBE function is cell-autonomous. Ectopic expression of GFP:RBE under the APETALA1 promoter causes the homeotic conversion of floral organs, resulting in sterile flowers. In these plants, the class B homeotic genes APETALA3 and PISTILLATA are down-regulated, suggesting that the restriction of the RBE expression to the petal precursor cells is crucial for flower development.     

Regulation of cell proliferation patterns by homeotic genes during Arabidopsis floral development

The shoot apical meristem of Arabidopsis thaliana consists of three cell layers that proliferate to give rise to the aerial organs of the plant. By labeling cells in each layer using an Ac-based transposable element system, we mapped their contributions to the floral organs, as well as determined the degree of plasticity in this developmental process. We found that each cell layer proliferates to give rise to predictable derivatives: the L1 contributes to the epidermis, the stigma, part of the transmitting tract and the integument of the ovules, while the L2 and L3 contribute, to different degrees, to the mesophyll and other internal tissues. In order to test the roles of the floral homeotic genes in regulating these patterns of cell proliferation, we carried out similar clonal analyses in apetala3-3 and agamous-1 mutant plants. Our results suggest that cell division patterns are regulated differently at different stages of floral development. In early floral stages, the pattern of cell divisions is dependent on position in the floral meristem, and not on future organ identity. Later, during organogenesis, the layer contributions to the organs are controlled by the homeotic genes. We also show that AGAMOUS is required to maintain the layered structure of the meristem prior to organ initiation, as well as having a non-autonomous role in the regulation of the layer contributions to the petals.     

LEAFY controls floral meristem identity in Arabidopsis.

The first step in flower development is the generation of a floral meristem by the inflorescence meristem. We have analyzed how this process is affected by mutant alleles of the Arabidopsis gene LEAFY. We show that LEAFY interacts with another floral control gene, APETALA1, to promote the transition from inflorescence to floral meristem. We have cloned the LEAFY gene, and, consistent with the mutant phenotype, we find that LEAFY RNA is expressed strongly in young flower primordia. LEAFY expression procedes expression of the homeotic genes AGAMOUS and APETALA3, which specify organ identify within the flower. Furthermore, we demonstrate that LEAFY is the Arabidopsis homolog of the FLORICAULA gene, which controls floral meristem identity in the distantly related species Antirrhinum majus.