河北转Bt基因棉田棉铃虫对杀虫剂的抗性及相关酶活性的变化

为明确河北省推广种植植转Bt基因抗虫棉（简称Bt棉）后, 棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner)对常用杀虫剂的抗药性水平及其生化机理, 2011-2012年采用点滴法对保定南郊、 沧州南皮、 邢台巨鹿3个地区的田间种群以及敏感种群进行了室内毒力测定, 并采用生化分析法对4个种群相关的羧酸酯酶（carboxylesterase, CarE）、 谷胱甘肽S 转移酶(glutathione S-transferases, GSTs)和乙酰胆碱酯酶(acetylcholinesterase, AChE)的活性进行了研究。结果表明: 3个田间种群对高效氯氰菊酯和氰戊菊酯处于中至高抗水平, 抗性倍数为20.02~73.70倍; 对灭多威处于低至中抗水平, 抗性倍数为6.27~11.84倍; 对高效氯氟氰菊酯(抗性倍数: 1.07~4.20倍), 辛硫磷、 毒死蜱和马拉硫磷(抗性倍数: 1.00~2.69倍), 以及氯虫苯甲酰胺（抗性倍数: 2.00~3.67倍）均处于敏感水平。3个田间种群的CarE, GSTs和AChE活性分别是敏感种群的1.06~1.23, 1.20~1.63和1.15~1.23倍, 这可能与其对高效氯氰菊酯、 氰戊菊酯和灭多威产生的抗性有关。     

不同地理区域桔小实蝇解毒酶系活性及其与抗药性水平关系

昆虫体内的解毒酶活性是反映其抗药性水平的主要生理指标，本文比较了桔小实蝇Bactrocera dorsalis的几种解毒酶活性和抗药性水平关系。测定了9个地理品系和相对敏感品系的桔小实蝇成虫的三种解毒酶，即多功能氧化酶(Mixed function oxidase, MFO)、羧酸酯酶（Carboxylesterase, CarE）和谷胱甘肽Ｓ-转移酶(Glutathione S-transferase, GST)的活性,利用药膜法测定其对敌百虫(Trichlorphon)、高效氯氰菊酯(β-cypermethrin)和阿维菌素(Avermectin)的抗性水平，比较了各地理品系的桔小实蝇这些酶活性和对不同杀虫剂的抗性水平的关系，并作通径分析。结果表明：广东广州地区桔小实蝇体内的MFO-O-脱甲基活性最高，为相对敏感品系酶活性的1.4782倍；而广东茂名地区品系酶活性最低，只有0.8649倍。广东惠州地区桔小实蝇体内CarE活性最高，为相对敏感品系酶活性1.8147倍；而广西南宁地区的桔小实蝇体内酶活性最低，为敏感品系的0.9636倍。广东茂名地区桔小实蝇GST活性最高，是相对敏感品系2.2557倍；而广东广州地区桔小实蝇GST活性最低，只有相对敏感品系的1.1622倍。抗性水平表明：各地理品系对敌百虫的抗性水平为相对敏感品系的2.1552倍至100.2271倍之间，对高效氯氰菊酯的抗性水平在1.0065到26.0026倍之间，对阿维菌素的抗性水平在2.3353倍至29.0688倍之间。相关性分析表明：桔小实蝇体内的GST活性和对敌百虫抗性水平的相关系数为0.41，存在显著性正相关；CarE活性与桔小实蝇对高效氯氰菊酯抗性水平存在极显著正相关，相关系数为0.50。通径分析结果表明：GST活性对敌百虫的抗药性水平的直接通径系数为0.4414，对敌百虫的抗性上升起到正向作用；MFO-O-脱甲基活性、CarE活性和GST活性对高效氯氰菊酯抗性水平的直接通径系数分别为0.3311，0.4946和0.1775，均起到正向作用；GST活性与阿维菌素的抗性水平的直接通径系数很小，为0.0668。结果显示了桔小实蝇的解毒酶与抗药性水平关系密切，在抗性发展中起到了促进作用。     

湖南不同地区小菜蛾对药剂敏感性比较

采用浸叶法在室内测定了湖南长沙和怀化地区小菜蛾Plutella xylostella(L.)田间种群对10种药剂的敏感性。结果表明:湖南长沙和怀化地区田间小菜蛾除对丁醚脲和BT制剂仍处于敏感(抗性倍数<3)状态外,对其它8种药剂产生了不同程度的抗药性,其中以长沙地区小菜蛾田间种群对高效氯氰菊酯抗性倍数最高(抗性倍数为33.58)。长沙和怀化种群对药剂的相对毒力倍数以巴丹最低(1.20)而以多杀菌素最高(2.59)。     

棉铃虫对茚虫威的抗性机理:PBO,DEF和DEM的增效作用及解毒酶活性

【目的】本研究旨在明确不同棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigera种群对茚虫威的抗性水平及抗性机理,以科学有效防治这一害虫,避免其对茚虫威的抗性快速发展。【方法】采用浸叶法测定了棉铃虫不同种群,即相对敏感种群(CP)、汰选种群(TP)、沂水种群(YP)(采自山东沂水)和邯郸种群(HP)(采自河北邯郸)3龄幼虫对茚虫威抗性水平及增效醚(PBO)、脱叶磷(DEF)、顺丁烯二酸二乙酯(DEM)对茚虫威的增效作用;并测定了不同种群棉铃虫3龄幼虫体内多功能氧化酶(MFO)、羧酸酯酶(CarE)和谷胱甘肽-S-转移酶(GST)3种解毒酶及乙酰胆碱酯酶(ACh E)活性。【结果】CP种群对茚虫威敏感,TP,YP及HP种群对茚虫威的抗性倍数(resistence ratio,RR)分别为4.36,8.06和15.34倍,分别表现为敏感性降低、低水平抗性和中等水平抗性。在TP种群中,当棉铃虫3龄幼虫取食3种增效剂处理的叶片时,在0,6和12 h处理时间内增效作用随时间而升高,且PBO和DEF对茚虫威的增效作用优于DEM。增效剂PBO,DEF和DEM饲喂棉铃虫3龄幼虫12 h后对HP种群的增效倍数分别为3.86,2.52和4.57倍,对CP种群增效作用分别为1.11,0.52和0.91倍。酶活力对比研究发现,HP种群的棉铃虫MFO,CarE和GST活性显著高于CP种群和TP种群,YP种群的棉铃虫MFO和CarE活性显著高于CP种群,CarE活性显著低于HP种群,但是ACh E活性在棉铃虫种群间差异不显著。【结论】结果提示,当达到中等抗性水平时,MFO,CarE和GST活性显著升高与棉铃虫对茚虫威的抗性有关,而代谢抑制剂PBO,DEF和DEM对茚虫威有明显的增效作用。     

毛足棒角蝗对高效氯氰菊酯、印楝素和苦参碱的敏感性监测及解毒酶活性分析

为明确毛足棒角蝗Dasyhippus barbipes田间种群对高效氯氰菊酯、印楝素和苦参碱的药物敏感性现状及代谢抗性机制。采用点滴法测定了四子王旗、锡林浩特、正镶白旗、扎鲁特旗和新巴尔虎左旗蝗虫高发地区毛足棒角蝗3龄蝗蝻对3种杀虫剂的抗药性;检测了不同田间种群毛足棒角蝗体内羧酸酯酶(Carboxylesterase, CarE)、谷胱甘肽-S-转移酶(Glutathione-S-transferase, GST)、多功能氧化酶(Multifunctional oxidase, MFO)和细胞色素P450(CytochromeP450,CYP450)的活性,并分析了毛足棒角蝗的抗性水平与不同解毒酶活性之间的相关性。结果表明：毛足棒角蝗5个种群对高效氯氰菊酯敏感性明显降低,3龄蝗蝻的抗性倍数依次为5.91倍、5.28倍、4.69倍、3.18倍和4.06倍;四子王旗、正镶白旗和扎鲁特旗种群对苦参碱敏感性变化明显,5个毛足棒角蝗种群对印楝素敏感性无明显变化。不同田间种群的解毒酶活性均显著高于敏感种群,其中CarE、GST和CYP450活性与敏感种群差异显著,MFO活性升高不显著。相关分析表明...     

土耳其斯坦叶螨多重抗性品系选育及解毒酶活性的变化

为探索土耳其斯坦叶螨的多重抗药性及其生化机理,在室内对敏感系(SS)土耳其斯坦叶螨分别用螺螨酯、甲氰菊酯和阿维菌素的混剂进行处理,选育出多重抗性品系(Mp-R).结果表明: 选育至15代,土耳其斯坦叶螨的抗性指数达35.74倍.对不同品系的解毒酶活性分析显示,Mp-R品系相对SS品系的羧酸酯酶(CarE)、谷胱甘肽-S-转移酶(GSTs)和多功能氧化酶(MFO)的比活力分别是SS品系的1.21、1.53、9.18倍.说明CarE、GSTs、MFO的活性升高可促进土耳其斯坦叶螨对3种杀虫剂多重抗性的形成;MFO的活性升高可能是土耳其斯坦叶螨对3种杀虫剂产生多重抗性的主要原因.测定Mp-R品系和单抗品系(Ip-R)的农药感性和解毒酶活力变化发现,3种杀虫剂的混合使用可能会延缓土耳其斯坦叶螨对甲氰菊酯的抗性形成,加快对阿维菌素的抗性形成.     

陕西苹果园山楂叶螨抗药性监测

【目的】明确陕西省苹果园的山楂叶螨Tetranychus viennensis Zacher种群对5种药剂的抗性水平。【方法】采用玻片浸渍法,建立了山楂叶螨室内饲养的相对敏感种群对5种杀虫剂的敏感基线,同时从陕西乾县、礼泉、兴平、澄城、安塞、淳化、凤翔和扶风8个不同地区的苹果园采集山楂叶螨,分析这些田间种群的抗药性水平。【结果】山楂叶螨室内相对敏感种群对阿维菌素的敏感性最高,对毒死蜱敏感性最低;各种群对哒螨灵已产生了13.29~69.63倍的抗性;对高效氯氟氰菊酯已经产生了7.99~46.74倍的抗性;除兴平种群对阿维菌素表现为低抗水平外(抗性倍数7.63),其余种群对阿维菌素表现为敏感或者敏感性下降(抗性倍数1.89~3.94);除扶风种群对毒死蜱抗性水平处于敏感性下降的阶段外,其它7个种群对毒死蜱的均处于敏感阶段;各种群对噻虫嗪均处于敏感阶段。【结论】山楂叶螨室内相对敏感种群对5种不同杀虫剂的敏感性不同;各田间种群对哒螨灵和高效氯氟氰菊酯两种药剂已经产生了不同水平的抗药性,除兴平种群对阿维菌素产生低抗水平抗性外,其余田间种群对阿维菌素、毒死蜱和噻虫嗪抗性均表现为敏感或者敏感性下降;田间防治时应该减少哒螨灵和高效氯氟氰菊酯两种药剂的使用,同时注意不同农药的轮换使用,以此延缓山楂叶螨对杀虫剂产生高水平抗药性。     

甜菜夜蛾对虫酰肼抗性的生化机制

为了解甜菜夜蛾Spodoptera exigua (Hübner)对虫酰肼的抗性生化机制, 采用活体测定法测定了甜菜夜蛾虫酰肼敏感种群、汰选种群和武汉自然种群体内解毒酶［羧酸酯酶（CarE）和谷胱甘肽-S-转移酶（GSTs)］、保护酶［过氧化氢酶(CAT)、 过氧化物酶（POD）和超氧化物歧化酶（SOD) ］以及与表皮形成相关的表皮酚氧化酶(PO)和几丁质酶的活性。结果表明: 汰选种群和自然种群CarE比活力分别是敏感种群的1.20和2.67倍, GSTs比活力分别是敏感种群的2.34和0.96倍。汰选种群CarE的Km值与敏感种群相比差异显著, 但V_max值无明显差异; 自然种群Km值和V_max值与敏感种群、汰选种群均存在极显著差异。酯酶同工酶电泳酶谱在迁移率、谱带数目、酶带染色深浅等方面均存在明显差异, 分析结果与CarE活力测定、酶动力学研究结果相符。与敏感种群相比, 汰选种群CAT和POD比活力差异不显著, SOD比活力显著增高; 自然种群3种酶比活力均显著增高; 自然种群和汰选种群均是SOD酶活力的变化较CAT和POD明显。汰选种群PO和几丁质酶比活力比敏感种群分别上升了37.64%和27.37%, 自然种群比活力分别上升了59.63%和60.29%。自然种群和汰选种群PO酶动力学常数均与敏感种群存在显著差异。     

黄曲条跳甲对毒死蜱敏感性差异的生化机制

采用生物测定方法测定黄曲条跳甲Phyllotreta striolata(F.)2个室内试验种群(蔊菜试验种群、上海青试验种群)和1个田间自然种群对毒死蜱的LC50值。结果表明,蔊菜试验种群对毒死蜱的LC50值最低,为30.3459mg.L-1;田间自然种群对毒死蜱的LC50值最高,为77.8448mg.L-1,与蔊菜试验种群相比的敏感性指数为0.39。对不同种群黄曲条跳甲乙酰胆碱酯酶(AChE)、羧酸酯酶(CarE)、谷胱甘肽-S-转移酶(GSTs)的活性测定结果表明,黄曲条跳甲田间自然种群AChE活性最低,与菜试验种群、上海青试验种群相比,差异极显著(P>0.01);田间自然种群GSTs活性最高,与蔊菜试验种群、上海青试验种群相比,差异极显著(P>0.01);黄曲条跳甲蔊菜试验种群CarE活性最低,田间自然种群CarE活性最高,二者差异极显著(P>0.01);说明黄曲条跳甲对毒死蜱的敏感性下降可能与AChE活性的降低,与CarE、GSTs的活性提高有一定的关系。     

不同地区小菜蛾种群羧酸酯酶的毒理学性质研究

在1995～1997年对湖北武汉、河北张家口地区小菜蛾Plutella xylostella(L.)种群的抗药性进行了研究。结果表明对阿维菌素的抗性和台湾敏感种群相比,武汉种群抗性为4.3倍,张家口种群抗性为1.8倍;对马拉硫磷的抗性武汉和张家口种群分别为2.2和2.9倍;对氟铃脲的抗性分别为3.2和0.5倍;对溴氰菊酯的抗性分别为2.4和1.7倍。对羧酸酯酶(Care)的研究结果表明,三个种群幼虫CarE对a-乙酸萘酯或β-乙酸萘酯(a或β-NA)水解活性差异显著,但成虫Care活性没有明显差异。武汉和张家口种群幼虫CarE对a-NA和β-NA的亲和力没有明显差异,但是武汉种群幼虫Care对底物的亲和力高于张家口种群。敏感品系Care对a—NA的亲和力明显高于对β-NA,相差约3倍。不同类型的抑制剂对小菜蛾幼虫CarE的抑制能力不同。增效磷和对氧磷对敏感品系CarE水解a-NA具有明显的抑制作用,分别比对武汉种群Care的抑制作用大4.577倍(SVl)和2.576倍(对氧磷)。     

Biochemical basis of organophosphate and carbamate resistance in Asian citrus psyllid

The Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama, is a worldwide pest of citrus, which vectors the putative causal pathogen of huanglongbing. Current management practices warrant continuous monitoring of field populations for insecticide resistance. Baseline activities of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), general esterase, and glutathione S-transferase as well as sensitivity of AChE to selected organophosphate and carbamate insecticides were established for a susceptible laboratory strain (Lab) and compared with several field populations of D. citri from Florida. The specific activity of AChE in various D. citri populations ranged from 0.77 to 1.29 microM min(-1) mg of protein(-1); the Lab strain was characterized by the highest activity. Although reduced AChE sensitivity was observed in the Lab strain compared with field populations, overlap of 95% confidence intervals of I50 values (concentration required for 50% AChE activity inhibition) suggests no significant difference in AChE sensitivity among all populations tested for a given insecticide. There was no significant evidence of target site insensitivity in field populations that were exposed to the selected organophosphate and carbamate insecticides tested. The specific activity of general esterase and glutathione S-transferase was lowest in the Lab strain and was generally comparable to that of the field populations evaluated. The current data provide a mode-of-action specific baseline for future monitoring of resistance to organophosphate and carbamate insecticides in populations of D. citri.     

The genetic basis of malathion resistance in housefly (Musca domestica L.) strains from Turkey

Organophosphate insecticide (parathion/diazinon) resistance in housefly (Musca domestica L.) is associated with the change in carboxylesterase activity. The product of MdalphaE7 gene is probably playing a role in detoxification of xenebiotic esters. In our research, we have isolated, cloned and sequenced the MdalphaE7 gene from 5 different Turkish housefly strains. High doses of malathion (600 microg/fly) were applied in a laboratory environment for one year to Ceyhan1, Ceyhan2, Adana and Ankara strains while no insecticide treatment was performed in the laboratory to Kirazli strain. Trp251 --> Ser substitution was found in the product of MdalphaE7 gene in all malathion resistant and Kirazli stocks. In addition, we checked the malathion carboxylesterase (MCE), percent remaining activities in acetylcholinesterase (AChE), glutathion-S-transferase (GST), and general esterase activities in all 5 strains used in this study. In comparing with universal standard sensitive control WHO, a high level of MCE and GST activities were observed while lower level of general esterase activities was detected in the tested strains. In addition, a higher percent remaining activities in AChE than WHO susceptible strain were observed in all malathion resistant strains.     

Using Drosophila melanogaster to validate metabolism-based insecticide resistance from insect pests

Identifying molecular mechanisms of insecticide resistance is important for preserving insecticide efficacy, developing new insecticides and implementing insect control. The metabolic detoxification of insecticides is a widespread resistance mechanism. Enzymes with the potential to detoxify insecticides are commonly encoded by members of the large cytochrome P450, glutathione S-transferase and carboxylesterase gene families, all rapidly evolving in insects. Here, we demonstrate that the model insect Drosophila melanogaster is useful for functionally validating the role of metabolic enzymes in conferring metabolism-based insecticide resistance. Alleles of three well-characterized genes from different pest insects were expressed in transgenic D. melanogaster : a carboxylesterase gene (αE7) from the Australian sheep blowfly Lucilia cuprina, a glutathione S-transferase gene (GstE2) from the mosquito Anopheles gambiae and a cytochrome P450 gene (Cyp6cm1) from the whitefly Bemisia tabaci. For all genes, expression in D. melanogaster resulted in insecticide resistance phenotypes mirroring those observed in resistant populations of the pest species. Using D. melanogaster to assess the potential for novel metabolic resistance mechanisms to evolve in pest species is discussed.     

Characterization of esterases in malathion-resistant and susceptible strains of the pteromalid parasitoid Anisopteromalus calandrae

General esterase, malathion-specific carboxylesterase, phosphotriesterase, glutathione S-transferase, cytochrome P-450-dependent monooxygenase activity, and target site sensitivity were compared in malathion-resistant (R) and malathion-susceptible (S) strains of the parasitoid Anisopteromalus calandrae (Howard) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). Activity against -naphthyl acetate was not significantly different in male and female wasps for either strain. General esterase activity ranged from 1.2-fold to 2.5-fold higher in the R strain compared with the S strain, but these differences between strains were not consistent. Based on V_max/K_m ratios estimated for a number of analogs of four substrates (-naphthyl acetate, β-naphthyl acetate, 4-methylumbelliferyl acetate, and p-nitrophenyl acetate) there was no evidence that general esterase activity was elevated or reduced in the R strain. Malathion-specific carboxylesterase (MCE) activity, determined by using 2,3-¹⁴C-malathion as substrate, was 10- to 30-fold higher in the R strain compared with that in the S strain. The MCE has a pH optima at about pH 7, is cytosolic, and is labile upon storage at −80°C. MCE activity could be recovered from native 10% PAGE gels and IEF–PAGE gels (pI=5.2), but the peak of MCE activity also contained the major peak of activity against -naphthyl acetate. There was no evidence for major involvement of phosphotriesterase, glutathione S-transferase, monooxygenase, or altered acetylcholinesterase in the resistance. These data suggest that an increased activity of a MCE in the R strain is the probable major mechanism conferring resistance to malathion in A. calandrae. This study provides the first characterization of a biochemical resistance mechanism in a parasitoid with a high level of resistance to an organophosphate insecticide.     

抗溴氰菊酯家蝇在不同用药方式下的敏感性变化及其机制

以具有极高抗水平的抗溴氰菊酯家蝇Musca domestica vicina Macquart DR0品系为试虫,模拟田间几种常见的用药方式(混用、轮用、使用增效剂),在室内进行平行汰选,并以不用药和继续用原药汰选的为比较,研究试虫在这几种用药方式下的敏感性变化及其变化机制。抗性家蝇用辛溴混剂、辛硫磷以及溴氰菊酯＋SV₁汰选后,在F₁₆(F₁₇)代以前,对溴氰菊酯及汰选药剂的抗性发展相对都比较缓慢;F₁₆(F₁₇)代以后,用溴氰菊酯＋SV₁汰选的家蝇对溴氰菊酯的敏感性迅速下降,抗性发展很快。家蝇对溴氰菊酯的敏感性变化与药剂中溴氰菊酯的选择压有关。生化分析结果表明,在不同用药方式汰选下,家蝇体内酯酶、多功能氧化酶、谷胱甘肽-S-转移酶、乙酰胆碱酯酶的酶活或特性发生了不同的变化。     

柑橘全爪螨田间种群敏感性测定及三种主要解毒酶活性比较

为明确重庆地区柑橘全爪螨Panonychus citri(McGregor)对常用杀螨剂的抗性水平,本研究采用阿维菌素、哒螨灵、三唑锡、螺螨酯4种不同类型杀螨剂对柑橘全爪螨重庆北碚种群、璧山种群、武隆种群和忠县种群进行了田间敏感性测定。结果表明,柑橘全爪螨4个种群对三唑锡表现最不敏感,致死中浓度LC50在209.9～370.9mg/L之间。璧山种群对阿维菌素敏感性最高,武隆种群和忠县种群对阿维菌素的相对抗性分别达12倍和11倍。哒螨灵监测结果表明,北碚种群的抗性水平显著高于其他3个种群。而北碚种群对螺螨酯的LC50仅为1.2mg/L,显著低于其他种群。柑橘全爪螨4个种群解毒酶活性研究发现,解毒酶活性的高低与不同种群抗性水平之间并没有明显相关性,这可能同各地区施药背景不同、综合防治措施不同、各杀螨剂作用机理不同、不同种群体内代谢抗性及靶标抗性水平差异有关。     

斜纹夜蛾对氯氟氰菊酯不同抗性水平与解毒代谢酶的关系

为探讨斜纹夜蛾Spodoptera litura (Fabricius)对氯氟氰菊酯抗性水平与解毒代谢酶之间的关系, 以泰安郊区对氯氟氰菊酯抗性为543.7倍的斜纹夜蛾田间种群为材料, 研究了药剂汰选与否的抗性动态及不同抗性水平的解毒代谢酶活性变化。结果表明: 室内继代饲养至第30代, 不接触任何药剂的抗性下降至102.3倍, 用氯氟氰菊酯汰选28代后, 抗性上升到3 049.3倍, 而在药剂汰选至第14代, 抗性已至2 593.8倍时, 停止用氯氟氰菊酯汰选, 到第30代的抗性又降至786.3倍。表明斜纹夜蛾抗氯氟氰菊酯田间种群, 在无药剂选择压力时抗性水平会显著下降, 继续给予药剂汰选会使抗性水平显著上升。检测斜纹夜蛾田间种群5龄幼虫中肠酯酶和谷胱甘肽S-转移酶活性, 发现与敏感种群有显著性差异, 而多功能氧化酶O-脱甲基活性与敏感种群的差异不明显; 给予氯氟氰菊酯药剂汰选, 酯酶、谷胱甘肽S 转移酶和多功能氧化酶O-脱甲基3种酶的活性均呈显著增加趋势; 停止用氯氟氰菊酯汰选后, 3种酶的活性又呈显著下降趋势; 不接触任何药剂, 随着饲养世代数的增加, 其酯酶和谷胱甘肽S-转移酶的活性也呈下降趋势。结果提示斜纹夜蛾幼虫酯酶、谷胱甘肽S-转移酶和多功能氧化酶O-脱甲基活性的提高是斜纹夜蛾对氯氟氰菊酯抗性上升的重要原因。     

Selection and reversion of azamethipos-resistance in a field population of the housefly Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae), and the underlying biochemical mechanisms

The organophosphorus insecticide, azamethiphos, is widely used throughout the world to control the housefly, Musca domestica (L.). Since its commercial introduction to Denmark in 1983 for this purpose, we have monitored the toxicity of azamethiphos to housefly populations at livestock farms throughout the country and carried out regular field studies. The findings of our field studies, which have revealed a strong potential for resistance development, have been born out by regular surveys showing that resistance has increased in recent years. Through the analysis of a field derived laboratory strain, we have implicated oxidative and hydrolytic mechanisms together with altered acetylcholinesterase in this resistance. Our field and laboratory studies have also indicated that resistance is relatively unstable, and can revert in the absence of selection. The implications of our findings for the continued efficacy of azamethiphos are discussed.     

The molecular basis of two contrasting metabolic mechanisms of insecticide resistance

The esterase-based insecticide resistance mechanisms characterised to date predominantly involve elevation of activity through gene amplification allowing increased levels of insecticide sequestration, or point mutations within the esterase structural genes which change their substrate specificity. The amplified esterases are subject to various types of gene regulation in different insect species. In contrast, elevation of glutathione S-transferase activity involves upregulation of multiple enzymes belonging to one or more glutathione S-transferase classes or more rarely upregulation of a single enzyme. There is no evidence of insecticide resistance associated with gene amplification in this enzyme class. The biochemical and molecular basis of these two metabolically-based insecticide resistance mechanisms is reviewed.