Small mammal assemblages in a disturbed tropical landscape at Pozuzo,Peru

Deforestation in the Peruvian pre-montane forests has increased alarmingly in recent years. Particularly, fragmentation in these forests takes place against a background of very extensive continuous forest. Until now, no studies have detailed how Peruvian small mammals responded to forest fragmentation. In this paper, we report the results of an assessment of nonvolant small mammal fauna in forest remnants (one large fragment and one small fragment) and cattle pasture in a disturbed landscape at Pozuzo, formerly a pre-montane tropical forest in central Peru. In each forest remnant, we quantify habitat parameters and identified small mammals to know if there is a relationship between forest remnant size or microhabitat structure and small mammal assemblages. In addition, we investigated the influence of habitat structure on the presence of small mammal species. We did not find any evidence that habitat structure in large fragment was greater than small fragment. Actually, both forest remnants presented habitat features typical of forests subject to higher levels of disturbance. We found that abundance of small trees (10 - 19 cm DBH) was positively associated with the presence of Marmosops noctivagus, but negatively with the presence of Oecomys bicolor. Likewise, the presence of the arboreal Rhipidomys leucodactylus was associated with the abundance of larger trees (DBH > 50 cm). We recorded 12 small mammal species in large fragment, 9 in small fragment and 3 in cattle pasture. No significant differences were found in species richness between both fragments, but marsupial abundance in the small fragment was greater than large fragment. At Pozuzo, we recorded 9 species restricted to forest habitat and 3 to forest and cattle pastures. However, it is necessary to assess more fragments to improve our knowledge about species survival in this landscape.     

Airborne hyperspectral data predict Ellenberg indicator values for nutrient and moisture availability in dry grazed grasslands within a local agricultural landscape

Species-based ecological indices, such as Ellenberg indicators, reflect plant habitat preferences and can be used to describe local environment conditions. One disadvantage of using vegetation data as a substitute for environmental data is the fact that extensive floristic sampling can usually only be carried out at a plot scale within limited geographical areas. Remotely sensed data have the potential to provide information on fine-scale vegetation properties over large areas. In the present study, we examine whether airborne hyperspectral remote sensing can be used to predict Ellenberg nutrient (N) and moisture (M) values in plots in dry grazed grasslands within a local agricultural landscape in southern Sweden. We compare the prediction accuracy of three categories of model: (I) models based on predefined vegetation indices (VIs), (II) models based on waveband-selected VIs, and (III) models based on the full set of hyperspectral wavebands. We also identify the optimal combination of wavebands for the prediction of Ellenberg values. The floristic composition of 104 (4 m × 4 m grassland) plots on the Baltic island of Öland was surveyed in the field, and the vascular plant species recorded in the plots were assigned Ellenberg indicator values for N and M. A community-weighted mean value was calculated for N (mN) and M (mM) within each plot. Hyperspectral data were extracted from an 8 m × 8 m pixel window centred on each plot. The relationship between field-observed and predicted mean Ellenberg values was significant for all three categories of prediction models. The performance of the category II and III models was comparable, and they gave lower prediction errors and higher R² values than the category I models for both mN and mM. Visible and near-infrared wavebands were important for the prediction of both mN and mM, and shortwave infrared wavebands were also important for the prediction of mM. We conclude that airborne hyperspectral remote sensing can detect spectral differences in vegetation between grassland plots characterised by different mean Ellenberg N and M values, and that remote sensing technology can potentially be used to survey fine-scale variation in environmental conditions within a local agricultural landscape.     

A habitat quality indicator for common birds in Europe based on species distribution models

The EU 2020 Biodiversity Strategy requires the gathering of information on biodiversity to aid in monitoring progress towards its main targets. Common species are good proxies for the diversity and integrity of ecosystems, since they are key elements of the biomass, structure, functioning of ecosystems, and therefore of the supply of ecosystem services. In this sense, we aimed to develop a spatially-explicit indicator of habitat quality (HQI) at European level based on the species included in the European Common Bird Index, also grouped into their major habitat types (farmland and forest). Using species occurrences from the European Breeding Birds Atlas (at 50 km × 50 km) and the maximum entropy algorithm, we derived species distribution maps using refined occurrence data based on species ecology. This allowed us to cope with the limitations arising from modelling common and widespread species, obtaining habitat suitability maps for each species at finer spatial resolution (10 km × 10 km grid), which provided higher model accuracy. Analysis of the spatial patterns of local and relative species richness (defined as the ratio between species richness in a given location and the average richness in the regional context) for the common birds analysed demonstrated that the development of a HQI based on species richness needs to account for the regional species pool in order to make objective comparisons between regions. In this way, we proved that relative species richness compensated for the bias caused by the inherent heterogeneous patterns of the species distributions that was yielding larger local species richness in areas where most of the target species have the core of their distribution range. The method presented in this study provides a robust and innovative indicator of habitat quality which can be used to make comparisons between regions at the European scale, and therefore potentially applied to measure progress towards the EU Biodiversity Strategy targets. Finally, since species distribution models are based on breeding birds, the HQI can be also interpreted as a measure of the capacity of ecosystems to provide and maintain nursery/reproductive habitats for terrestrial species, a key maintenance and regulation ecosystem service.     

Using scats of a generalist carnivore as a tool to monitor small mammal communities in Mediterranean habitats

Owl pellets have long been used to analyze communities of small mammals, while analogous analyses of faeces of mammal carnivores are not available. We demonstrate that common genet (Genetta genetta) scats can be used as a reliable method to sample small mammal communities and to monitor their variations. We have compiled data on 6350 small mammal remains of 18 species found in scats from 51 different latrines in a 1200 km² area of northeastern Spain. Genet scats sampled effectively 95.6% of the small mammal species ranging in size from 2.7 to 385 g. Spatial patterns of diet composition along environmental gradients of elevation, climate and land-use matched expected changes in small mammal communities along these gradients according to ecological requirements of prey species. Frequencies of occurrence of prey in genet scats were strongly correlated with frequencies of occurrence in barn owl (Tyto alba) pellets. Genet scats included two forest species not preyed upon by owls, whereas only one species was not preyed upon by genets. Forests species were more frequent in genet than in barn owl diets after correcting for environmental effects, whereas the opposite was true for open-habitat and synanthropic species. Scats of generalist carnivores can be used to estimate the spatial patterns of distribution and abundance of small mammal communities. Genet scats in fact overcome some of the limitations of more traditional sampling methods (live-trapping and owl diets), as genets were less selective and their diets reflect more accurately changes in community composition.     

Arboreal gaits in three sympatric rodents Apodemus agrarius,Apodemus flavicollis (Rodentia,Muridae) and Myodes glareolus (Rodentia,Cricetidae)

Vertical stratification of the arboreal habitat allows the coexistence of several species in a given area, because the complex arboreal strata can be used in different ways by arboreal and scansorial mammals. The present report experimentally investigated the gait metrics on different arboreal substrates, of three sympatric rodents living in a deciduous forest in Poznań, Poland. Arboreal locomotion was compared between the burrowing striped field mouse, Apodemus agrarius, the scansorial bank vole, Myodes glareolus, and the more arboreal yellow-necked mouse, Apodemus flavicollis. We filmed two wild-caught individuals from each species walking on four different substrate diameters (2 mm, 5 mm, 10 mm, 25 mm) and three different inclinations (45° descending, horizontal, 45° ascending) at 240 fps and collected a set of gait parameters from a total of 273 complete cycles. Our results did not demonstrate clear relationships between arboreal locomotion and the ecology of the three species. Only A. flavicollis exhibited locomotor features partly associated with arboreal competence, including lower velocity and diagonality on narrow substrates and asymmetrical gaits on wider ones. On the other hand, the two Apodemus species, despite their different ecologies, shared a few locomotor similarities, such as velocity regulation primarily by stride frequency, and similar effects of substrate size and inclination on diagonality, duty factor, and duty factor index indicating the possibility of a phylogenetic signal. Because the selected gait parameters provided limited insight into the ability of small mammals to move competently through an arboreal habitat, these findings indicate that the relationship between behaviour and ecology is complex.     

Elements for a non-detriment finding of Cedrela spp. in Bolivia—A CITES implementation case study

Cedrela odorata and C. fissilis are two tropical tree species that have been widely harvested for their timber. In response to this heavy exploitation, the species have been listed in Appendix III of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The aim of this study was to provide important elements necessary for the making of CITES Non-Detriment Findings for Cedrela spp. in Bolivia using a wide variety of sources of information on its distribution, population structure, and management at multiple spatial scales. A national large-scale database of forest inventories was created, including information about trees of certain species with diameter at breast height (dbh) ≥20. These data were used to make non-detriment findings (NDFs) following CITES guidance for timber species. Spatial prediction of Cedrela habitat revealed a consistent pattern of habitat probability across Bolivia. The genus occurs in areas formerly or currently occupied by ten of the twelve forest types described as habitat for Cedrela odorata and C. fissilis, with a density ranging from 0.4 to 159 trees > 60 cm dbh per 100 ha. Based on these data, the annual export quota for Cedrela in Bolivia should be 3513.1 m³ of timber. This country-level case study could provide a roadmap for other studies that may eventually lead to uplisting the genus. Including Cedrela in CITES Appendix II may help to ensure that its harvest to supply international markets is conducted in a sustainable manner, without damaging the target species or their ecosystem.     

Determinants of smooth-coated otter occupancy in a rapidly urbanizing coastal landscape in Southeast Asia

Urbanization often has negative impacts on wildlife, nevertheless many species can persist in heavily modified habitats. Understanding factors that promote species persistence in urbanizing landscapes is therefore important for maintaining biodiversity in changing landscapes and may inform more biodiversity-friendly development. We investigated effects of landscape-scale variables on habitat occupancy of Smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) in the Inner Gulf of Thailand. In this internationally important wetland complex, 86% of natural habitats have been altered and are now highly urbanized. We conducted track and sign surveys in 60, 25 km² grid cells encompassing 1,474 km². Within each cell, we quantified the landscape cover types including urban areas, natural habitat (predominately thin ribbons of mangrove along waterways), agriculture, aquaculture, and potential prey availability using a GIS and field surveys. We used occupancy models to identify habitat variables that affected probability of detection and occupancy. Estimated otter occupancy, based on the top model, was 0.33 ± 0.07 (95% CI 0.18–0.48) and detection probability was 0.50 ± 0.05 (95% CI 0.41–0.60). Otter occupancy was positively associated with the proportion of natural habitat and the cover of traditional aquaculture ponds, but negatively associated with agriculture and urban cover. The remaining natural patches appear to act as critical refuges for otter, allowing them to persist in an otherwise heavily transformed landscape. Because aquaculture ponds are likely important prey sources for otters, it may lead to conflict with aquaculture farmers. Further studies of feeding and movement patterns in cooperation with aquaculture farmers would be beneficial for developing detailed management plans for the species in this human dominated landscape.     

Distance models in ecological network management: A case study of patch connectivity in a grassland network

Landscape connectivity is a key issue of nature conservation and distance parameters are essential for the calculation of patch level metrics. For such calculations the so-called Euclidean and the least cost distance are the most widespread models. In the present work we tested both distance models for landscape connectivity, using connectivity metrics in the case of a grassland mosaic, and the ground beetle Pterostichus melas as a focal species. Our goal was to explore the dissimilarity between the two distance models and the consequent divergence from the calculated values of patch relevance in connectivity. We found that the two distance models calculated the distances similarly, but their estimations were more reliable over short distances (circa 500 m), than long distances (circa 3000 m). The variability in the importance of habitat patches (i.e. patch connectivity indices) was estimated by the difference between the two distance models (Euclidean vs. least cost) according to the patch size. The location of the habitat patches in the matrix seemed to be a more important factor than the habitat size in the estimation of connectivity. The uncertainty of three patch connectivity indices (Integral Index of Connectivity, Probability of Connectance and Flux) became high above a habitat size of 5 ha. Relevance of patches in maintaining connectivity varied even within small ranges depending on the estimator of distance, revealing the careful consideration of these methods in conservation planning.     

A comparative assessment of support vector regression,artificial neural networks,and random forests for predicting and mapping soil organic carbon stocks across an Afromontane landscape

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is a key indicator of ecosystem health, with a great potential to affect climate change. This study aimed to develop, evaluate, and compare the performance of support vector regression (SVR), artificial neural network (ANN), and random forest (RF) models in predicting and mapping SOC stocks in the Eastern Mau Forest Reserve, Kenya. Auxiliary data, including soil sampling, climatic, topographic, and remotely-sensed data were used for model calibration. The calibrated models were applied to create prediction maps of SOC stocks that were validated using independent testing data. The results showed that the models overestimated SOC stocks. Random forest model with a mean error (ME) of −6.5 Mg C ha⁻¹ had the highest tendency for overestimation, while SVR model with an ME of −4.4 Mg C ha⁻¹ had the lowest tendency. Support vector regression model also had the lowest root mean squared error (RMSE) and the highest R² values (14.9 Mg C ha⁻¹ and 0.6, respectively); hence, it was the best method to predict SOC stocks. Artificial neural network predictions followed closely with RMSE, ME, and R² values of 15.5, −4.7, and 0.6, respectively. The three prediction maps broadly depicted similar spatial patterns of SOC stocks, with an increasing gradient of SOC stocks from east to west. The highest stocks were on the forest-dominated western and north-western parts, while the lowest stocks were on the cropland-dominated eastern part. The most important variable for explaining the observed spatial patterns of SOC stocks was total nitrogen concentration. Based on the close performance of SVR and ANN models, we proposed that both models should be calibrated, and then the best result applied for spatial prediction of target soil properties in other contexts.     

Effects of land-use change on productivity depend on small-scale plant species diversity

Understanding the interplay between land-use change, species diversity and ecosystem function is critical for the prediction of global change impacts on ecosystem services. Biodiversity experiments with artificial species assemblages have shown that community-scale species richness may affect ecosystem productivity and spatial stability. However, the use of synthetic communities with controlled levels of species density for biodiversity experiments has been criticised and their relevance for natural communities has been questioned. Here, we use a land-use change experiment to investigate the biodiversity effects on production within managed, upland grasslands. We examine species diversity and productivity at both the small plant-neighbourhood scale (14×14 cm) and the field scale (15 m×25 m) for two land-use trajectories under field conditions: intensification through fertilisation, and extensification through the cessation of mowing. Both intensification and extensification were associated with a decrease in species number, but the magnitude of this decrease was greater at the small scale. Extensification was associated with a decrease in small-scale productivity whereas intensification had no significant effect on small-scale productivity. Effects of land-use treatments on biomass production were mediated by variation in small-scale species number; species number showed a significant positive relationship with small-scale productivity within each land-use treatment. Furthermore, species number was associated with a decrease in the variance of small-scale green biomass. In contrast, no species diversity effects were found on productivity at the field scale. Instead, field-scale species diversity decreased with increase in the total above-ground biomass (green biomass+litter). This study demonstrates that biodiversity effects can be observed under field conditions at the small scale and may play an important role for ecosystem functioning and stability even in low-diversity plant communities.     

Species–area models to assess biodiversity change in multi-habitat landscapes: The importance of species habitat affinity

Species–area relationships (SARs) are a common tool to assess the impacts of habitat loss on species diversity. Species–area models that include habitat effects may better describe biodiversity patterns; also the shape of the SAR may be best described by other models than the classical power model. We compared the fit of 24 SAR models, i.e. eight basic models using three approaches: (i) single-habitat models, (ii) multi-habitat models which account for the effect of the habitat composition on total species diversity (= choros models) and (iii) multi-habitat models which also account for the differential use of habitats by different species groups (= countryside models). We use plant diversity data from a multi-habitat landscape in NW Portugal. Countryside models had the best fit both when predicting species–area patterns of species groups and of total species richness. Overall, choros models had a better fit than single-habitat models. We also tested the application of multi-habitat models to land-use change scenarios. Estimates of species richness using the choros model only depended on the number of habitats in the landscape. In contrast, for the countryside model, estimates of species richness varied continuously with the relative proportion of the different habitat types in the landscape, and projections suggest that land-use change impacts may be moderated by a species’ ability to use multiple habitats in the landscape. We argue that the countryside SAR is a better model to assess the impacts of land-use changes than the single-habitat SAR or the choros model, as species often face habitat change instead of real habitat loss, and species response to change is contingent on their differential use of habitats in the landscape.     

Adult odonate abundance and community assemblage measures as indicators of stream ecological integrity: A case study

Water resources demand constant conservation actions due to several problems (e.g. riparian vegetation cut-off, construction of dams, acidification, sewage and pesticide spills) that degrade the aquatic systems worldwide and affect its physicochemical parameters and habitat characteristics. Odonata is a potential group of organisms that could indicate these habitat alterations once they have aquatic and terrestrial life forms. In this study, we tested the use of adult odonate individual species and community assemblage measures to evaluate the effect of riparian vegetation cut-off and sewage discharges. The study was performed at Turvo Sujo River, in Viçosa, Southern Brazil. We selected twelve sites, six of them were upstream and six were downstream the city. Species abundance and species richness estimates of adult odonates were performed on sunny days during summer and winter. We analyzed the goodness-of-fit of the species abundances to geometric and lognormal series. We also measured the Habitat Physical Integrity Score (HPIS), pasture and forest proportions and physicochemical water parameters at each site. Only few species were abundant in up- and downstream regions. Abundance of Argia modesta was higher at the upstream (t = 3.188; df = 17; p = 0.005) than at the downstream region and this species is a potential habitat bioindicator organisms. Species richness was statistically different only in the wet season and species–abundance relations at the two regions fitted well to both geometric and lognormal series. The lack of riparian vegetation indicates a loss of habitat integrity and heterogeneity at Turvo Sujo River basin, which was mainly dominated by lake-dwelling odonate species. Low species richness differences are caused by species pool biases toward those ones capable to survive at degraded ecosystems, suggesting that the effects of water parameters are much less important than a landscape dominated by pastures and practically without forests. We suggest the use of species–abundance models (like geometric and lognormal series) to determine the degree of impacts over a given community once they are simple models and can show intrinsic processes structuring communities.     

Exceptional thermal tolerance and water resistance in the mite Paratarsotomus macropalpis (Erythracaridae) challenge prevailing explanations of physiological limits

Physiological performance and tolerance limits in metazoans have been widely studied and have informed our understanding of processes such as extreme heat and cold tolerance, and resistance to water loss. Because of scaling considerations, very small arthropods with extreme microclimatic niches provide promising extremophiles for testing predictive physiological models. Corollaries of small size include rapid heating and cooling (small thermal time constants) and high mass-specific metabolic and water exchange rates. This study examined thermal tolerance and water loss in the erythracarid mite Paratarsotomus macropalpis (Banks, 1916), a species that forages on the ground surface of the coastal sage scrub habitat of Southern California, USA. Unlike most surface-active diurnal arthropods, P. macropalpis remains active during the hottest parts of the day in midsummer. We measured water-loss gravimetrically and estimated the critical thermal maximum (CT_max) by exposing animals to a given temperature for 1 h and then increasing temperature sequentially. The standardized water flux of 4.4 ng h⁻¹ cm⁻² Pa⁻¹, averaged for temperatures between 22 and 40 °C, is among the lowest values reported in the literature. The CT_max of 59.4 °C is, to our knowledge, the highest metazoan value reported for chronic (1-h) exposure, and closely matches maximum field substrate temperatures during animal activity. The extraordinary physiological performance seen in P. macropalpis likely reflects extreme selection resulting from its small size and resultant high mass-specific water loss rate and low thermal time-constant. Nevertheless, the high water resistance attained with a very thin lipid barrier, and the mite’s exceptional thermal tolerance, challenge existing theories seeking to explain physiological limits.     

Diel variation in movement patterns and habitat use by the Iberian endemic Cabrera vole: Implications for conservation and monitoring

Understanding variations in animal movement and habitat selection behaviour over fine spatial and temporal scales remains a particularly challenging goal in ecology and conservation. Here we document for the first time the diel variations in movement patterns and habitat use by wild-ranging Cabrera voles in fragmented Mediterranean farmland, based on radiotracking data (2006–2008) of 25 adult individuals occupying stable home-ranges in vegetation mosaics dominated by wet grasses and shrubs. Results indicated that the proportion of time animals spent moving, the distance moved, and the selection strength of main vegetation types were closely linked behavioural traits, which varied considerably across different periods of the 24-h cycle. In general, voles moved more frequently and over larger distances during daytime (between 06 h15–22 h00), which was when wet grasses were also used more intensively. These patterns were generally consistent across seasons, though during the dry season there was some tendency for a decrease in movement activity during the hottest hours of the day (between 10 h15–14 h00), with peaks around crepuscular hours (06 h15–10 h00 and 18 h15–22 h00). Overall, our study provides evidence that Cabrera voles may show notable shifts in habitat use and movement patterns on a finer scale than previously considered. This supports the idea that knowledge of the diel variations in species movement-habitat relationships should strongly contribute to improving local habitat management, as well as effective sampling and monitoring programs targeting the species.     

Predicting germination in semi-arid wildland seedbeds II. Field validation of wet thermal-time models

Accurate prediction of germination for species used for semi-arid land revegetation would support selection of plant materials for specific climatic conditions and sites. Wet thermal-time models predict germination time by summing progress toward germination subpopulation percentages as a function of temperature across intermittent wet periods or within singular wet periods. Wet periods may be defined by any reasonable seedbed water potential above which seeds are expected to imbibe sufficiently to germinate. These models may be especially applicable to the Artemisia steppe of the western U.S.A. where water availability limits germination in summer and early fall while cool temperatures limit germination in late fall, winter, and spring when soil water is available. To test accuracy of wet thermal-time models we placed seedbags with seeds of five species commonly used in wildland revegetation, as well as two collections of the invasive annual grass, Bromus tectorum L. into Artemisia tridentata Nutt. ssp. wyomingensis Beetle and Young zone seedbeds for 19 field incubation periods over four seasons. Hourly surface (1–3 cm) soil temperatures and soil water potentials were measured near the seedbags. These data were input into thermal-time models which predicted time to germination for each seedbag retrieval date. Binomial data representing agreement (1) or lack of agreement (0) of predicted and actual germination for each retrieval date were analyzed using logistic regression. Thermal summation method, season, water potential threshold, and species most affected accuracy of predictions (P < 0.0002). A model which defined a wet period as ≥−1.5 MPa soil water potential and summed progress toward germination across intermittent wet periods was most accurate in predicting actual germination by a retrieval date. Across all species, this model correctly predicted that germination would occur in seedbags 75–95% of the time over the latewinter to mid-spring seasons, but only 50–71% of the time for the fall-early winter season when time of soil water availability was least. Although the wet thermal-time model overestimated time to germination for some species and seasons, its accuracy should be high enough to evaluate germination potential by mid-spring for different species, sites, and climatic conditions.     

Knowledge-based framework for delineation and classification of ephemeral plant communities in riverine landscapes to support EC Habitat Directive assessment

Riverine landscapes are shaped by the spatio-temporal dynamics of the water regime. Water level transitions induce a shift in plant species composition from aquatic to ephemeral vegetation communities in riparian habitats. Hence, the occurrence of these ephemerals is strongly related to the hydrological connectivity and therefore used as indicator for the assessment of riparian habitat types. The delineation and assessment of such habitat types is time-consuming due to the indifferent occurrence of the plants. Therefore, in this study a knowledge-based framework is presented to provide readily usable polygons to support subsequent field surveys on species level. Different hierarchical scales range from hydrological connectivity classes to watercourses and to the micro-morphological classification of riparian habitats. The object-based image analysis approach was used to extract information from terrain and groundwater models, aerial images, and thematic data. The study site is located in the Danube floodplains east of Vienna Natura 2000 site. The micro-morphological classification of the watercourses resulted in the delineation of the classes Waterbodies, Riparian Habitats and the remaining Transition Zones. Watercourses with high flow velocity or with low hydrological connectivity show a small portion of potentially suitable riparian habitats for ephemeral vegetation communities. The framework with focus on terrain models delineating the shape of the riparian habitats performed well with an overall accuracy of 90% (kappa = 0.74). The thresholds in the framework were set fixed or calculated automatically to facilitate an application by spatial ecologist due to the combination of remote sensing techniques and GIS functionalities. The knowledge-based framework can be adapted to provide a harmonised and standardised dataset for any riverine study area.     

Mismatches between supply and demand in wildlife tourism: Insights for assessing cultural ecosystem services

Assessing cultural ecosystem services provided by biodiversity requires a combination of ecological and social approaches. In this study, we investigated the capacity of large African mammal species to provide the cultural ecosystem service of wildlife tourism by using a supply and demand framework. First, we tested the relationship between supply and demand for large mammal species in wildlife tourism. Second, we tested whether the trophic level and body size of mammals influenced the mismatch between supply and demand, and whether the patterns of mismatches were consistent among four protected areas (PAs) in three Southern African countries. To quantify supply of species, we counted large mammals along 196 five km road transects within the four PAs; to estimate demand, we gathered 651 face-to-face questionnaires of wildlife tourists and distinguished between their expectation and hope to see specific species. Results show that a higher supply of large mammal species increased the expectation to see a species (linear regression slope β = 0.28, p < 0.01), whereas supply did not affect the hopes to see a specific species (β = −0.04, p = 0.63). Analyses of mismatches revealed that predator species were more demanded in relation to their supply than ungulates. Finally, we found that the demands of wildlife tourists for mammal species in relation to their supply were consistent across the four PAs. Supply-demand analyses reveal that species’ traits, in particular trophic level, shape the hopes of wildlife tourists to see specific mammal species. We propose that the quantification of supply-demand mismatches can be used to identify charismatic species and relevant species’ traits, and can be applied for wildlife tourism assessments within as well as across regions. Supply-demand analyses provide a useful framework and deliver indicators for better assessing cultural ecosystem services involving wildlife and nature-based tourism, and can be used for conservation management.     

Biomass storage and stand structure in a conservation unit in the Atlantic Rainforest—The role of big trees

This study represents a small-scale approach to forest structure and biomass in the Atlantic Rainforest in Brazil and provides information on an ecosystem in which there still is a lack of data in this regard.The project was carried out in the National Park “Serra dos Orgãos” in the state of Rio de Janeiro, which is one of the largest remnants of continuous forest in this area. This forest is marked by a mosaic of forest types differing in tree composition and structure. Within this heterogeneous habitat the stand structure in three investigation plots was assessed to estimate the above-ground dry biomass (AGB) for all trees with a dbh ≥ 5 cm.This study indicates the structural diversity of the Atlantic Rainforest. Trees with a dbh > 30 cm were represented by 6% of all sampled individuals (18 out of 318 trees), but contributed 72% of total estimated AGB. The results suggest that big trees in the Atlantic Rainforest may contribute more into total AGB as reported for other tropical rainforests. Small-scale structural approaches like this study are able to form an initiating framework of more detailed results and help to improve estimates on biomass amounts and therefore on carbon storage capacity.     

Tree visitation and seed dispersal of wild cherries by terrestrial mammals along a human land-use gradient

The role of terrestrial mammals as seed dispersers of fleshy-fruited plants has only rarely been investigated in temperate regions although recent studies underline the importance of these animals for long-distance seed dispersal. Here we examine the potential role of mammals as seed dispersers of wild cherry (Prunus avium L.) along a gradient of human land-use intensity. We placed camera traps at 21 wild cherry trees to identify the mammal species that visited the trees. We conducted feeding trials to test if the recorded species were legitimate seed dispersers or seed predators and to assess gut passage times. We tested the influence of human land-use intensity by quantifying habitat and landscape structure around the study trees at different spatial scales and analyzing its influence on visitation rates of tree visitors. Red fox (Vulpes vulpes), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), marten (Martes spp.) and badger (Meles meles) were identified as seed dispersers of wild cherry, of which wild boar was largely a seed predator. Habitat and landscape structure at local spatial scales (70 m, 500 m radius) had no effect on the total visitation rates of mammals. At larger spatial scales (1.0–10.0 km radius) total visitation rates increased with increasing proportion of extensively used farmland and seminatural habitat in the area. The proportion of forest had no influence on visitation rates. The results suggest that high proportions of extensively used farmland and seminatural habitat increase the visitation and seed dispersal rates of large mammals. Comparing gut passage times with home range sizes and daily travel distances suggests that these mammals have the potential to disperse seeds over long distances and can provide gene flow in fragmented agricultural landscapes.