Effect of bioaugmentation and nitrogen supplementation on composting of paddy straw

A composting experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of a hyperlignocellulolytic fungal consortium and different nitrogen amendments on paddy straw composting in terms of changes in physicochemical and biological parameters. A fungal consortium comprising four lignocellulolytic mesophilic fungal cultures was used as inoculum for bioaugmentation of paddy straw in perforated pits. The comparative effect of farmyard manure (FYM), soybean trash, poultry litter and urea on the composting process was evaluated at monthly intervals in terms of physicochemical (pH, EC, available P, C:N ratio and humus content) and biological (enzymatic and microbial activity) parameters. The compost prepared from bioaugmented paddy straw composting mixture, with poultry manure as nitrogen supplement attained desirable C:N ratio in 1 month and displayed least phytotoxicity levels along with higher production of β-1,4-Exoglucanase. The combined activity of the autochthonous composting microbiota as well as the externally applied fungal inoculum accelerated the composting process of paddy straw. Supplementation of paddy straw with poultry manure in 8:1 ratio was identified as the best treatment to hasten the composting process. This study highlights the importance of application of fungal inoculum and an appropriate N-amendment such as poultry manure for preparation of compost using a substrate having high C:N ratio, such as paddy straw.     

Quality evaluation of co-composted wheat straw, poultry droppings and oil seed cakes

Poultry droppings, neem cake, castor cake, jatropha cake and grass clippings were used separately as organic nitrogen additives to decrease the high C:N ratio of wheat straw. Composting was carried out aerobically in presence of fungal consortium developed by including Aspergillus awamori, Aspergillus nidulans, Trichoderma viride and Phanerochaete chrysosporium. The degraded product was characterized to assess the technical viability of organic nitrogen supplements as well as fungal consortium in improving the quality of compost and hastening the process of decomposition of high lignocellulolytic waste. Evaluation of maturity showed that mixture of wheat straw, poultry dropping and jatropha cake had the lowest C:N ratio of 10:1, the highest humic acid fraction of 3.15%, the lowest dehydrogenase activity and a germination index exceeding 80% in 60 days of decomposition. Inoculated and grass clipping amended wheat straw–poultry dropping mixture resulted in compost with highest humus content of 11.8% and C:N ratio of 13.5, humic acid fraction of 2.84% and germination index of 59.66%. Fungal consortium was effective in improving the humus content of all the composted mixtures. In some treatments, germination index could not be correlated with C:N ratio. Non edible oil seed cake supplemented substrate mixtures did not respond to fungal inoculation as far as C:N ratio was concerned.     

Effect of fungal consortium and animal manure amendments on phosphorus fractions of paddy-straw compost

The study was conducted to reveal the type of phosphorus (P) fractions present in mature compost prepared by co-composting paddy straw (P.S) with cattle manure (CM), farm yard manure (FYM) and poultry manure (PM), each added separately as nitrogen (N) and P source. A consortium of phytate mineralizing fungi developed by including Aspergillus niger ITCC 6719, Aspergillus flavus ITCC 6720 and Trichoderma harzianum ITCC 6721 was applied for recovery of P from plant and animal residues. Chemical evaluation of compost after 4 months of aerobic decomposition revealed that inoculation improved the sodium bicarbonate-extractable P content of CM and FYM supplemented P.S compost by 32.3% and 23.5% respectively compared with their respective un-inoculated control. However, the peak values for water soluble-P fractions were recorded in CM–straw compost followed by PM–straw compost. Fungal inoculation also improved the agronomic quality of PM–straw compost as the latter had the highest total P content and lowest C:N and E4/E6 ratio of 18:1 and 5.36:1 respectively. The recovery of organic P from agricultural residue has the potential to reduce the application of synthetic P fertilizer. P-enriched organic manure can offer potential environment and economic benefits to farmers under sustainable agriculture.     

Kinetics of wheat straw solid-state fermentation with Trametes versicolor and Pleurotus ostreatus — lignin and polysaccharide alteration and production of related enzymatic activities

Summary The kinetics of straw solid-state fermentation (SSF) with Trametes versicolor and Pleurotus ostreatus was investigated to characterize the delignification processes by these white-rot fungi. Two successive phases could be defined during straw transformation, characterized by changes in respiratory activity, changes in lignin and polysaccharide content and composition, increase in in-vitro digestibility, and enzymatic activities produced by the fungi. Lignin composition was analysed after CuO alkaline degradation, and decreases in syringyl/guaiacyl and syringyl/p-hydroxyphenyl ratios and cinnamic acid content were observed during the fungal treatment. An increase in the phenolic acid yield, revealing fungal degradation of side-chains in lignin, was produced by P. ostreatus. The highest xylanase level was produced by P. ostreatus, and exocellulase activity was nearly absent from straw treated with this fungus. Lactase activity was found in straw treated with both fungi, but lignin peroxidase was only detected during the initial phase of straw transformation with T. versicolor. High levels of H₂O₂-producing aryl-alcohol oxidase occurred throughout the straw SSF with P. ostreatus. Offprint requests to: A. T. Martínez     

混料设计优化黑木耳菌丝生长的农业剩余物配方

【背景】菌林矛盾日益突出,农业剩余物资源丰富,可作为食用菌栽培主要基质。【目的】筛选出适合黑木耳菌丝生长的农业剩余物配方。【方法】以大豆秸秆、油菜秸秆、玉米秸秆、花生秸秆、小麦秸秆和杂木屑等6种基质为原料,运用单纯形格子法进行配方设计,分析不同基质交互作用对黑木耳菌丝生长速率、菌丝生长指数、漆酶酶活、多酚氧化酶酶活和纤维素酶酶活的影响。【结果】在这些农业剩余物基质中,大豆秸秆基质最适合黑木耳菌丝生长,其次是油菜秸秆。3种主料共同作用可以优化出最适合黑木耳菌丝生长的基质配比。【结论】最终优化出一个适合黑木耳菌丝生长的农业剩余物配方：杂木屑49.4%、油菜秸秆16.4%、大豆秸秆12.2%、麦麸20%、蔗糖1%、CaSO₄ 1%。本研究为“以草代木”栽培黑木耳提供了理论基础。     

Ecology of Thermophilic Fungi in Mushroom Compost, with Emphasis on Scytalidium thermophilum and Growth Stimulation of Agaricus bisporus Mycelium

Twenty-two species of thermophilic fungi were isolated from mushroom compost. Scytalidium thermophilum was present in the compost ingredients, fresh straw, horse droppings, and drainage from compost and dominated the fungal biota of compost after preparation. Of 34 species of thermophilic fungi tested, 9 promoted mycelial growth of Agaricus bisporus on sterilized compost: Chaetomium thermophilum, an unidentified Chaetomium sp., Malbranchea sulfurea, Myriococcum thermophilum, S. thermophilum, Stilbella thermophila, Thielavia terrestris, and two unidentified basidiomycetes. These species will be considered for future experiments on inoculation and more controlled preparation of compost.     

Biodegradation of paddy straw obtained from different geographic locations by means of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phlebia</Emphasis> spp. for animal feed

Various cereal straws are used as feed by supplementing the green forage or other feed stuffs. An experiment was designed to see the effect of different geographic locations and climatological conditions on biochemical constituents, fungal degradation and in vitro digestibility of paddy straw. Paddy straw (PS) obtained from three different geographic locations of India was subjected to solid state fermentation using four white rot fungi i.e. Phlebia brevispora, P. fascicularia, P. floridensis and P. radiata. Changes in the biochemical constituents like water soluble content, hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin, total organic matter, and in vitro digestibility of paddy straw was analyzed over a period of 60 days along with lignocellulolytic enzymes i.e. laccase, xylanase and carboxymethyl cellulase. All the fungi degraded the straw samples and enhanced the in vitro digestibility. The paddy straw, obtained from north western zone (NWZ) suffered a maximum loss (228 g/kg) of lignin by P. radiata, while a maximum enhancement of in vitro digestibility from 185 to 256 g/kg was achieved by P. brevispora, which also caused minimum loss in total organic matter (98 g/kg). In PS obtained from central eastern zone (CEZ) and north eastern zone (NEZ), a maximum amount of lignin (210 and 195 g/kg, respectively) was degraded by P. floridensis and resulted into a respective enhancement of in vitro digestibility from 172 to 246 g/kg and 188 to 264 g/kg. The study demonstrates that geographic locations not only affect the biochemical constituents of paddy straw but the fungal degradation of fibers, their in vitro digestibility and lignocellulolytic enzyme activity of the fungus may also vary.     

Enhancing the mineralization of [U-14C]dibenzo-p-dioxin in three different soils by addition of organic substrate or inoculation with white-rot fungi

The potential for aerobic mineralization of [U-¹⁴C]dibenzo-p-dioxin (DD) was investigated in samples of three different agricultural soils already contaminated with polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/F) by industrial activities. The influence of amendments, i.e. wheat straw and compost, and of soil treatment by inoculation with lignolytic fungi, grown on wheat straw substrate, was tested. All the soils tested contained an indigenous DD-mineralizing microflora. The soil characterized by the highest organic matter content and the highest content of soil microbial biomass displayed the best DD mineralization of 36.6% within 70 days, compared with the two organic-matter-poor soils with an endogenous DD mineralization of 19.5% and 23.3% respectively. Amendments with compost increased DD mineralization up to 28% in both soils with low organic matter and microbial biomass content, but did not affect mineralization in the organic-matter-rich soil. Addition of wheat straw had no constant influence on DD mineralization in the soils tested. The best DD mineralization resulted from inoculation with lignolytic white-rot fungi (Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Pleurotus sp. Florida, Dichomitus squalens) and with an unidentified lignolytic fungus, which was isolated originally from a long-term PCDD/F-contaminated soil. A mineralization of up to 50% within 70 days was reached by this treatment. The influence of inoculated fungi on mineralization differed between the soils investigated. Received: 14 April 1997 / Received revision: 24 June 1997 / Accepted: 29 June 1997     

Chemical and biological properties of wheat soil in response to paddy straw incorporation and its biodegradation by fungal inoculants

A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the relative contribution of organic fertilizers (paddy straw, microbial inoculants and vermicompost) and inorganic fertilizers (urea and superphosphate) in improving pH, C, N, humus, microbial biomass, dehydrogenase, phosphatase, cellulase, β-glucosidase and xylanase activities of soil under wheat crop. Vermicompost fertilization resulted in highest microbial biomass, available phosphorus, and nitrogen content of wheat soil. It was also found effective in minimizing the alkalinity of soil compared to other treatments as indicated by pH change. However incorporation of paddy straw in conjunction with N₆₀P₆₀ and T. reesei inoculation resulted in maximum dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase and highest humus content of soil. Mixed inoculation of A. awamori and T. reesei did not prove effective in improving the soil biochemical properties in comparison to single inoculation of T. reesei. Results showed that in situ incorporation of paddy straw in combination with N₆₀P₆₀ and T. reesei inoculation can be used as an effective measure for valuable disposal of paddy straw and to improve the soil health by reducing mineral fertilization.     

Dominance of bacterial ammonium oxidizers and fungal denitrifiers in the complex nitrogen cycle pathways related to nitrous oxide emission

Organic compounds and mineral nitrogen (N) usually increase nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions. Vinasse, a by‐product of bio‐ethanol production that is rich in carbon, nitrogen, and potassium, is recycled in sugarcane fields as a bio‐fertilizer. Vinasse can contribute significantly to N₂O emissions when applied with N in sugarcane plantations, a common practice. However, the biological processes involved in N₂O emissions under this management practice are unknown. This study investigated the roles of nitrification and denitrification in N₂O emissions from straw‐covered soils amended with different vinasses (CV: concentrated and V: nonconcentrated) before or at the same time as mineral fertilizers at different time points of the sugarcane cycle in two seasons. N₂O emissions were evaluated for 90 days, the period that occurs most of the N₂O emission from fertilizers; the microbial genes encoding enzymes involved in N₂O production (archaeal and bacterial amoA, fungal and bacterial nirK, and bacterial nirS and nosZ), total bacteria, and total fungi were quantified by real‐time PCR. The application of CV and V in conjunction with mineral N resulted in higher N₂O emissions than the application of N fertilizer alone. The strategy of vinasse application 30 days before mineral N reduced N₂O emissions by 65% for CV, but not for V. Independent of rainy or dry season, the microbial processes were nitrification by ammonia‐oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and archaea and denitrification by bacteria and fungi. The contributions of each process differed and depended on soil moisture, soil pH, and N sources. We concluded that amoA‐AOB was the most important gene related to N₂O emissions, which indicates that nitrification by AOB is the main microbial‐driven process linked to N₂O emissions in tropical soil. Interestingly, fungal nirK was also significantly correlated with N₂O emissions, suggesting that denitrification by fungi contributes to N₂O emission in soils receiving straw and vinasse application.     

Integrated effects of organic,inorganic and biological amendments on methane emission,soil quality and rice productivity in irrigated paddy ecosystem of Bangladesh: field study of two consecutive rice growing seasons

Aims

Effects of different soil amendments were investigated on methane (CH₄) emission, soil quality parameters and rice productivity in irrigated paddy field of Bangladesh.

Methods

The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with five treatments and three replications. The experimental treatments were urea (220 kg ha^?1) + rice straw compost (2 t ha^?1) as a control, urea (170 kg ha^?1) + rice straw compost (2 t ha^?1) + silicate fertilizer, urea (170 kg ha^?1) + sesbania biomass (2 t ha^?1 ) + silicate fertilizer, urea (170 kg ha^?1) + azolla biomass (2 t ha^?1) + cyanobacterial mixture 15 kg ha^?1 silicate fertilizer, urea (170 kg ha^?1) + cattle manure compost (2 t ha^?1) + silicate fertilizer.

Results

The average of two growing seasons CH₄ flux 132 kg ha^?1 was recorded from the conventional urea (220 kg ha^?1) with rice straw compost incorporated field plot followed by 126.7 (4 % reduction), 130.7 (1.5 % reduction), 116 (12 % reduction) and 126 (5 % reduction) kg CH₄ flux ha^?1 respectively, with rice straw compost, sesbania biomass, azolla anabaena and cattle manure compost in combination urea and silicate fertilizer applied plots. Rice grain yield was increased by 15 % and 10 % over the control (4.95 Mg ha^?1) with silicate plus composted cattle manure and silicate plus azolla anabaena, respectively. Soil quality parameters such as soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, microbial biomass carbon, soil redox status and cations exchange capacity were improved with the added organic materials and azolla biofertilizer amendments with silicate slag and optimum urea application (170 kg ha^?1) in paddy field.

Conclusion

Integrated application of silicate fertilizer, well composted organic manures and azolla biofertilizer could be an effective strategy to minimize the use of conventional urea fertilizer, reducing CH₄ emissions, improving soil quality parameters and increasing rice productivity in subtropical countries like Bangladesh.     

The Effect of Sulfur on the Composition of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Communities During the Pod-Setting Stage of Different Soybean Cultivars

This study sought to investigate the effect of sulfur levels on changes in the fungal community composition of arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) at the pod-setting stage and the relationship between the amount of applied sulfur and AM fungal diversity in different soybean cultivars. The objective of the research was to determine the optimal sulfur application level for different soybean cultivars and to improve soybean yield and quality from the perspective of AM fungal diversity. Three soybean cultivars, Heinong 44, Heinong 48, and Heinong 37, were selected as study materials. In addition to 0.033?g each of N, P₂O₅ and K₂O per kg of soil, 0, 0.02, 0.04, or 0.06?g of elemental sulfur was applied to each kg of soil for the four treatment groups, S1, S2, S3, and S4, respectively. The AM fungal community structure was analyzed in the soil and root of different soybean cultivars using the PCR-DGGE technology. The results indicated a significant effect of sulfur on the AM fungal community structure in the roots and rhizospheric soil of different soybean cultivars. The three soybean cultivars in group S2 exhibited the highest diversity in AM fungus. Significant changes in the dominant fungal species were observed in the DGGE fingerprints of each sample, and Glomus, Funneliformis, Rhizophagus, and Claroideoglomus fungi were the dominant species of AM fungus in the roots and soil of soybean. The application of an appropriate amount of sulfur improved the diversity of AM fungi in roots and rhizospheric soil of different soybean cultivars.     

Improvement of antagonistic capability of Trichoderma harzianum by UV-Irradiation for management of Macrophomina phaseolina

Antagonistic capability of Trichoderma harzianum was improved through UV-irradiation. Four different type of mutants, T. harzianum - M_a (Th-M_a), T. harzianum - M_b(Th-M_b), T. harzianum - M_c (Th-M_c), T. harzianum - M_d (Th-M_d) of T. harzianum and the parent strain (Th-P) were selected for further studies. Th-M_a and Th-M_b showed more antagonistic capability against Macrophomina phaseolina than its parent strain Th-P in dual culture. Biochemical analysis of these four mutants and the parent strain showed that Th-M_a releases higher level of two lytic enzymes i.e. chitinases and cellulases and Th-M_b produces more β-1,3-glucanase activity than the parent strain. Culture filtrate of Th-M_a also showed antifungal properties. Study of the competitive saprophytic ability (CSA) of these four mutants and the parent strain were also made. Th-M_a exhibited higher CSA than the parental isolate while Th-M_d had less CSA than all other mutants and the parent strain of T. harzianum.     

Changes in biochemical constituents of paddy straw during degradation by white rot fungi and its impact on in vitro digestibility

Aims: To improve the digestibility of paddy straw to be used as animal feed by means of selective delignification using white rot fungi. Methods and Results: Solid state fermentation of paddy straw was carried out with some white rot fungi for 60 days. Different biochemical analyses, e.g. total organic matter (TOM) loss, hemicellulose loss, cellulose loss, lignin loss and in vitro digestibility, were carried out along with laccase, xylanase and carboxymethyl cellulase activity. The results were compared with that of a widely studied fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium, which degraded 464 g kg^?1 TOM and enhanced the in vitro digestibility from 185 to 254 g kg^?1 after 60 days of incubation. Straw inoculated with Phlebia brevispora possessed maximum crude protein. Conclusions: All the tested white rot fungi efficiently degraded the lignin and enhanced the in vitro digestibility of paddy straw. Phlebia brevispora, Phlebia radiata and P. chrysosporium enhanced the in vitro digestibility almost to similar levels, while the loss in TOM was much lesser in P. brevispora and P. radiata when compared to P. chrysosporium. Significance and Impact of the Study: The study reflects the potential of P. brevispora and P. radiata as suitable choices for practical use in terms of availability of organic matter with higher protein value, selective ligninolysis and better digestibility.     

Cladosporium sphaerospermum as a new plant growth-promoting endophyte from the roots of Glycine max (L.) Merr.

Endophytic fungi are plant symbionts that produce a variety of beneficial metabolites for plant growth and protection against herbivory and pathogens. Fourteen fungal samples were isolated from the roots of soybean cultivar Daemangkong and screened on waito-c rice for their plant growth-promoting capacity. Twelve of the fungal isolates promoted plant growth, while two inhibited it. The fungal isolate DK-1-1 induced maximum plant growth in both waito-c rice and soybean. The plant growth promotion capacity of DK-1-1 was higher than the wild type Gibberella fujikuroi. Gibberellin (GA) analysis of culture filtrate of DK-1-1 showed the presence of higher amounts of bioactive GA₃, GA₄, and GA₇ (6.62, 2.1 and 1.26 ng/mL, respectively) along with physiologically inactive GA₅, GA₁₅, GA₁₉, and GA₂₄. Phylogenetic analysis of 18S rDNA sequence identified the fungal isolate as a new strain of Cladosporium sphaerospermum. Gibberellin production and plant growth-promoting ability of genus Cladosporium are reported for the first time in the present study. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Effects of fermentation on microbial loads of formulated complementary food

Effects of fermentation on microbial loads of formulated complementary food were investigated. Paddy and parboiled rice, soybean and crayfish were obtained from the open market in Jos. The paddy rice was malted for 72h. The foodstuffs were processed into flours. Parboiled rice and soybean mix was formulated in a standard ratio 70∶30 g while a modified standard, formulation of parboiled rice, soybean, malted rice and crayfish mix in the ratio of 65∶25∶5∶5 g was also made. From this formulation, fermentati on of different blends at varying periods with malt addition before fermentation was carried out. Total microbial and fungal loads wee determined. Isolation and identification of different microorganisms in the blends were also carried out. The average microbial loads in the blends ranged from 2.8 × 10⁷ to 1.4 × 10⁸. The average fungal loads range from 6.8 × 10 to 5.6 × 10⁶. The unfermented modified standard blend consisting in: parboiled rice 65%, dehulled soybean 25%, malted rice (72 h) 5% and crayfish 5% (PR: DSB: MR₇₂:CF₀), had the highest microbial and fungal loads (1.4 × 10⁸ and 5.6 × 10⁶, respectively). Seven microorganisms were isolated consisting ofBacillus coagulans, Bacillus firmus, Bacillus cereus, Enterococcus faecalis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Beneckeaspp. andEscherichia coli. Enterococcus faecalis was isolated from the two unfermented (PR:DSB₀ and PR:DSB:MR₇₂:CF₀) blends.Escherichia coli was isolated from the unfermented modified standard blend. It was concluded that the fermented blends had lower microflora load and safer for human consumption than the unfermented blends.     

Mycotoxigenic infestation in samples of cereal straw from Bihar, India

A survey of different types of cereal straw samples viz. paddy, maize and wheat, from Bihar State, India, was conducted in order to examine the mould flora and mycotoxin contamination. Out of 170 samples examined for mould flora,Aspergillus flavus group of fungi had highest level of incidence followed byA niger. Isolates ofA flavus, A ochraceus, Fusarium verticillioides andPenicillium citrinum were screened for their mycotoxins producing abilities. Out of 75, 63 and 68 isolates ofA flavus group obtained from stored straw of paddy, maize and wheat samples, respectively, 27 (36%), 14 (22%) and 24 (35%) were found to be toxigenic which produced different combinations of aflatoxins in different concentrations. The percentage toxigenicity was comparatively lower in the isolates of other mycotoxigenic fungi from all types of samples. Out of 222 samples of straw analysed for natural occurrence of different mycotoxins, besides the aflatoxins present, zearalenone, ochratoxin A and citrinin were also recorded alone or as co-contaminants. A conducive climate together with the socioeconomic conditions of this region are important determinants for the high incidence of mycotoxins in cereal straw samples.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Chrysosporium pseudomerdarium</Emphasis> produces gibberellins and promotes plant growth

We isolated 10 endophytic fungi from the roots of drought stressed soybean cultivar Hwangkeumkong and bioassyed on waito-c rice and soybean seedlings, in order to identify plant growth-promoting fungi. The fungal isolate D-2-1 provided the best result for plant height and biomass promotion as compared to wild type Gibberella fujikuroi. The D-2-1 culture filtrate (CF) was analyzed for the presence of gibberellins (GAs) and it was observed that all physiologically active GAs, especially gibberellic acid, were present in higher amounts (GA₁, 0.24 ng/ml; GA₃, 8.99 ng/ml; GA₄, 2.58 ng/ml and GA₇, 1.39 ng/ml) in conjunction with physiologically inactive GA₅, GA₉, GA₁₅, GA₁₉, and GA₂₄. The fungal isolate D-2-1 was identified as a new strain of Chrysosporium pseudomerdarium through phylogenetic analysis of 18S rDNA sequence. Plant growth promotion and GAs production capacity of genus Chrysosporium have been reported for the first time in this study.     

Fungal pathogens secrete an inhibitor protein that distinguishes isoforms of plant pathogenesis-related endo-β-1,3-glucanases

Plant endo-β-1,3-glucanases and chitinases inhibit the growth of some fungi and generate elicitor-active oligosaccharides while depolymerizing polysaccharides of mycelial walls. Overexpression of the endo-β-1,3-glucanases and/ or chitinases in transgenic plants provides, in some cases, increased protection against fungal pathogens. However, most of the phytopathogenic fungi that have been tested in vitro are resistant to endo-β-1,3-glucanases and chitinases. Furthermore, some phytopathogenic fungi whose growth is inhibited by these enzymes are able to overcome the effect of these enzymes over a period of hours, indicating an ability of those fungi to adapt to the enzymes. Evidence is presented indicating that fungal pathogens secrete proteins that inhibit selective plant endo-β-1,3-glucanases.A glucanase inhibitor protein (GIP-1) has been purified to homogeneity from the culture fluid of the fungal pathogen of soybeans, Phytophthora sojae f. sp. glycines (Psg), and two basic pathogenesis-related endo-β-1,3-glucanases (EnGL_soy-A and EnGL_soy-B) have been purified from soybean seedlings. GIP-1 inhibits EnGL_soy-A but not EnGL_soy-B. Moreover, GIP-1 does not inhibit endo-β-1,3-glucanases secreted by Psg itself nor does GIP-1 inhibit PR-2c, a pathogenesis-related endo-β-1,3-glucanase of tobacco. Evidence is presented that Psg secretes other GIPs that inhibit other endo-β-1,3-glucanase(s) of soybean. Furthermore, GIP-1 does not exhibit proteolytic activity but does appear to physically bind to EnGL_soy-A. The results reported herein demonstrate specific interactions between gene products of the host and pathogen and establish the need to consider fungal proteins that inhibit plant endo-β-1,3-glucanases when attempting to use the genes encoding endo-β-1,3-glucanases to engineer resistance to fungi in transgenic plants.     

麦田土壤真菌多样性对麦玉轮作长期秸秆还田和配施有机肥的响应

【背景】土壤真菌主导田间秸秆腐解的过程,秸秆还田配施有机肥可为真菌提供良好的营养物质。【目的】研究麦玉轮作模式下长期秸秆还田配施有机肥对麦田土壤真菌多样性的影响。【方法】依托山西南部麦玉轮作区长达14年的秸秆还田和施有机肥长期定位试验,采用高通量测序开展土壤真菌群落结构和多样性对不施肥+秸秆清茬(CK)、氮磷化肥+秸秆清茬(NP)、氮磷化肥+秸秆还田(SNP)、氮磷化肥+有机肥+秸秆清茬(NPM)及氮磷化肥+秸秆还田+有机肥(SNPM)的响应差异研究。【结果】秸秆还田和施有机肥处理组的物种丰富度指数、Chao1指数和ACE指数均高于CK。5个处理共产生953个分类操作单元(operational taxonomic units, OTU),CK、NP、NPM、SNP和SNPM分别具有398、451、472、462和440个OTU。在门水平上共检测出9个菌门,其中子囊菌门(Ascomycota)、毛霉门(Mucoromycota)和担子菌门(Basidiomycota)为3个主要菌门,各处理中所占丰度差异显著;在属水平上共检测出262个真菌属,其中CK丰度较高的3个属为柄孢壳菌属(Podospora) 18.85%、被孢霉属(Mortierella) 16.67%和镰刀菌属(Fusarium) 7.77%;NP、NPM、SNP和SNPM丰度较高的前3个相同属均为Dendrostilbella、毛葡孢属(Botryotrichum)和被孢霉属(Mortierella),但相对丰度值存在差异。由聚类分析可知,NPM和SNPM群落组成相似度高,归为一类,而CK、NP、SNP各独立为一类。与环境因子间冗余分析发现,TN含量是影响土壤真菌群落结构的关键因子,也受速效磷、pH、速效钾、碱解氮和全磷等环境指标影响。【结论】长期秸秆还田和施有机肥改变了小麦土壤真菌种群结构和多样性。