Effects of gender inequality and wealth inequality on within-sex mating competition under hypergyny

Resources are often central to the formation and persistence of human consortships, and to the evolutionary fitness consequences of those consortships. As a result, the distribution of resources within a society should influence the number and quality of mating opportunities an individual of given status/wealth experiences. In particular, in a wide variety of societies, both contemporary and historic, women have been shown to prefer mates of higher rather than lower status and wealth, a pattern known as ‘hypergyny’. Such status-dependent within-sex competition is influenced not only by the preferences individuals express but also by the distribution of resources within and between sexes. Empirical studies show that economic inequality within a sex can amplify mating competition, and that inequalities between women and men also influence behaviours related to mating competition, but the links between resource distribution and mating competition have attracted limited systematic attention. We present simulation models of hypergynous preferences and the effects on mating competition among men and among women within a heterosexual mating market. Our modelling shows that the lower mating success of poorer men and richer women (when compared with richer men and poorer women) is worsened when resource gender gaps are relatively small or when women out-earn men on average. Likewise, high economic inequality, especially among men, amplifies the competition experienced by these groups. We consider the political implications in terms of sex- and status-dependent attitudes to gender equity, wealth inequality, and hypergynous mating norms.     

A sex difference in the context-sensitivity of dominance perceptions

Although dominance perceptions are thought to be important for effective social interaction, their primary function is unclear. One possibility is that they simply function to identify individuals who are capable of inflicting substantial physical harm, so that the perceiver can respond to them in ways that maximize their own physical safety. Another possibility is that they are more specialized, functioning primarily to facilitate effective direct (i.e., violent) intrasexual competition for mates, particularly among men. Here we used a priming paradigm to investigate these two possibilities. Facial cues of dominance were more salient to women after they had been primed with images of angry men, a manipulation known to activate particularly strong self-protection motivations, than after they had been primed with images of angry women or smiling individuals of either sex. By contrast, dominance cues were more salient to men after they had been primed with images of women than when they had been primed with images of men (regardless of the emotional expressions displayed), a manipulation previously shown to alter men's impressions of the sex ratio of the local population. Thus, men's dominance perceptions appear to be specialized for effective direct competition for mates, while women's dominance perceptions may function to maximize their physical safety more generally. Together, our results suggest that men's and women's dominance perceptions show different patterns of context-sensitivity and, potentially, shed new light on the routes through which violence and intrasexual competition have shaped dominance perceptions.     

Body Size Perceptions and Eating Attitudes in Elderly Men

The majority of studies on eating attitudes, dieting and body size perceptions have focused on young adults and women. This study examined these attitudes in 334 black and white men, ages 55 to 98 years, who were members of the Charleston Heart Study cohort. Associations of the eating attitude variable with race, education and weight status were examined. Eighty-two percent of the overweight white men studied had dieted to lose weight, whereas only 49% of slimmer white men had dieted. In contrast, overweight black men did not diet more than slimmer black men. Overall black men dieted less than white men (37% reported dieting). Black men who were high school graduates were 1.3 times more likely to have dieted than were less educated black men. Overweight white men were over twice as likely as slimmer white men to feel guilty after overeating. This difference was not found in overweight versus slimmer black men. Education was not associated with measured body mass index (BMI) or perceived or ideal body size. However, there were some racial differences in these variables. White men preferred to be slightly thinner than black men (ideal BMI 25.6 vs. 26.1 kg/m²), and the difference between actual and desired BMI was 0.6 kg/m² greater in white than in black men. These results indicate that effects of race and weight status on eating restraint and body size perceptions seen in younger subjects and in women are also present, at least to some degree, in elderly men.     

Hormonal contraceptive use lowers female intrasexual competition in pair-bonded women

The purpose of this study was to test the influence of hormonal contraceptive use on levels of female intrasexual competition. Twenty-eight women completed a scale for intrasexual competition on three occasions: when using hormonal contraceptives and when regularly cycling at a fertile and a non-fertile cycle stage. When using hormonal contraception, pair-bonded, but not single women, reported significantly lower levels of intrasexual competition than when regularly cycling at either fertile or non-fertile cycle stages. This effect remained significant when controlling for age, length of relationship and relationship satisfaction. Neither pair-bonded nor single women reported shifts in intrasexual competition across the menstrual cycle when fertile as compared to non-fertile. This study benefited from a within-subjects design and a more rigorous assessment of fertility status (transvaginal ultrasonography) than which is typical in the field. Results are discussed in consideration of the evolutionary literature on the stability of romantic relationships and fitness advantages associated with intrasexual competition.     

Evidence against a relationship between dermatoglyphic asymmetry and male sexual orientation

Hall and Kimura (1994) studied the relation between dermatoglyphic asymmetry and male sexual orientation in a sample of 66 homosexual and 182 heterosexual men. They found that more homosexual men possessed a leftward dermatoglyphic asymmetry than did heterosexual men. In this paper, we report a comparative study about the relationship between sexual orientation and dermatoglyphic characteristics, including 60 homosexual men, 76 heterosexual men, and 60 heterosexual women, recruited from the general population, and also from a gay-rights nongovernmental organization, in Salvador, Brazil. Ulnar loops were the most frequent dermatoglyphic pattern in all groups, followed by whorls, arches, and radial loops. A chi-square analysis comparing the frequencies of the patterns in the three groups only showed an excess of ulnar loops in women (p < 0.05) and arches in men (p < 0.01), but did not reveal significant differences between homosexuals and the other groups studied. There was no significant difference between gay and straight men on total ridge count. We found a preponderance of rightward asymmetry in homosexual and heterosexual men, as well as in heterosexual women. Our results do not agree with Hall and Kimura's data indicating that more gay men possessed the minority leftward asymmetry than did straight men. There was no significant difference in leftward asymmetry in the sample studied. The results reported in this paper do not support any relation between dermatoglyphic asymmetry and male sexual orientation, and, thus, any hypothesis concerning a biological intrauterine contribution to adult sexual orientation somehow associated with dermatoglyphic development.     

Sexual Conflict and Gender Gap Effects: Associations between Social Context and Sex on Rated Attractiveness and Economic Status

Human mate choice research often concerns sex differences in the importance of traits such as physical attractiveness and social status. A growing number of studies indicate that cues to social context, including other people who appear in stimulus photographs, can alter that individual’s attractiveness. Fewer studies, however, consider judgements of traits other than physical attractiveness, such as wealth. Here we manipulate the presence/absence of other people in photographs of target models, and test the effects on judgments of both attractiveness and earnings (a proxy for status). Participants (N = 2044) rated either male or female models for either physical attractiveness or social/economic status when presented alone, with same sex others or with opposite sex others. We collectively refer to this manipulation as ‘social context’. Male and female models received similar responses for physical attractiveness, but social context affected ratings of status differently for women and men. Males presented alongside other men received the highest status ratings while females presented alone were given the highest status ratings. Further, the status of females presented alongside a male was constrained by the rated status of that male. Our results suggests that high status may not directly lead to high attractiveness in men, but that status is more readily attributed to men than to women. This divide in status between the sexes is very clear when men and women are presented together, possibly reflecting one underlying mechanism of the modern day gender gap and sexist attitudes to women’s economic participation. This adds complexity to our understanding of the relationship between attractiveness, status, and sex in the light of parental investment theory, sexual conflict and economic theory.     

Attunement to the fertility status of same-sex rivals: women's testosterone responses to olfactory ovulation cues

Evolutionary theories of mating suggest that changes in fertility across the menstrual cycle play an important role in sexual selection. In line with this framework, the current research examined whether olfactory cues to the fertility of a same-sex rival would prompt hormonal signs of intrasexual competition in women. Women exposed to the scent of another woman close to ovulation subsequently displayed higher levels of testosterone than women exposed to the scent of a woman far from ovulation. Whereas women exposed to the scent of a woman in the mid-luteal phase displayed sizable decreases in testosterone over time, no such decline was observed among women exposed to the scent of a woman near ovulation. Thus, olfactory cues signaling a rival's heightened level of fertility were associated with endocrinological responses in women that could be linked to intrasexual competition.     

Teasing History,Onset of Obesity,Current Eating Disorder Psychopathology,Body Dissatisfaction,and Psychological Functioning in Binge Eating Disorder

Objective: The primary goal of this study was to examine associations among teasing history, onset of obesity, current eating disorder psychopathology, body dissatisfaction, and psychological functioning in women with Binge Eating Disorder (BED). Research Methods and Procedures: Subjects were 115 female adults who met DSM‐IV criteria for BED. Measurements assessing teasing history (general appearance [GAT] and weight and size [WST] teasing), current eating disorder psychopathology (binge frequency, eating restraint, and concerns regarding eating, shape, and weight), body dissatisfaction, and psychological functioning (depression and self‐esteem) were obtained. Results: History of GAT, but not WST, was associated with current weight concerns and body dissatisfaction, whereas both GAT and WST were significantly associated with current psychological functioning. Patients with earlier onset of obesity reported more WST than patients with later onset of obesity, but the groups did not differ significantly in GAT, current eating disorder psychopathology, body dissatisfaction, or psychological functioning. Obese women reported more WST than non‐obese women, but no differences in GAT or the other outcome variables were observed. Higher frequency of GAT was associated with greater binge frequency in obese women, and with greater eating restraint in non‐obese women. Discussion: Although physical appearance teasing history is not associated with variability in most eating disorder psychopathology, it is associated with related functioning, most notably body dissatisfaction, depression, and self‐esteem. Our findings also suggest that the age of onset of obesity and current body mass index status in isolation are not associated with eating psychopathology or associated psychological functioning in adult patients with BED.     

Prejudice Toward Fat People: The Development and Validation of the Antifat Attitudes Test

LEWIS, ROBIN J, THOMAS F CASH, LORA JACOBI, CRISTINA BUBB-LEWIS. Prejudice toward fat people: The development and validation of the Antifat Attitudes Test. Although the stigma of obesity in our society in well documented, the measurement of antifat attitudes has been a difficult undertaking. Two studies were conducted to construct and validate the Antifat Attitudes Test (AFAT). In study 1, college students (110 men and 175 women) completed the preliminary 54-item AFAT and specific indices of body image and weight-related concerns. Psychometric and factor analysis revealed a 47-item composite scale and three internally consistent factors that were uncorrelated with social desirability: Social/Character Disparagement, Physical/Romantic Unattractiveness, and Weight Control/Blame. Several body image correlates of antifat prejudice were identified, and men expressed more negative attitudes than women. Study 2 experimentally examined the effects of information about the controllability of weight on the antifat attitudes of 120 participants. Exposure to information on behavioral vs. biogenetic control led to greater blame of persons who are fat for their body size. The implications of the findings and the potential utility of the AFAT are discussed.     

Young,formidable men show greater sensitivity to facial cues of dominance

There is considerable evidence that human male faces contain honest, detectable cues to their physical dominance, which are related to their objective facial masculinity. As such, some have argued that the extent to which observers' rate masculinised male faces as appearing more physically dominant is a useful measure of their ability to detect cues of dominance and threat in other men. We found across 3 studies (total n = 272) that younger, taller, and stronger men showed greater sensitivity to facial cues of dominance. Additionally, participants were more likely to associate younger than older masculinised faces with physical dominance. Self-perceived social dominance did not moderate perceptions. These results contrast with previous work which found that shorter, less socially dominant men had greater ability to detect facial cues of dominance. We propose the hypothesis that younger, more formidable males show greater sensitivity to facial cues of dominance as they are more likely to engage in violent intrasexual competition.     

A comparison of heterosexual and homosexual mating preferences in personal advertisements

Human heterosexual mating preferences have been shown to conform to predictions drawn from evolutionary theory, with men and women adopting broadly distinct strategies. Attempts to reconcile sexual selection theory with homosexual behavior have been less consistent, however, and have largely focussed on addressing two alternative perspectives: (i) that gay men and lesbians display phenotypic traits in common with opposite sex heterosexual individuals or (ii) that homosexual individuals display sex-typical, or exaggerated sex-typical phenotypes. Testing these hypotheses is complicated by sampling issues involved in the study of human sexual orientation, since obtaining standardized and comparable samples of heterosexual and non-heterosexual mating preferences is a prerequisite to analysis. Here we present a comparison of homosexual and heterosexual mating strategies in men and women using a sample of 1733 personal (‘lonely hearts’) adverts gathered from a single source. We used principal components analysis in order to expose underlying structure of the advertisements, and identify three components involving relative emphasis placed on resources, physical attractiveness and personality when offering or seeking mate characteristics. While homosexual individuals are shown to resemble their own-sex heterosexual counterparts in terms of emphasis placed on partner physical attractiveness relative to partner personality, no clear pattern emerges in other aspects of advertisement strategy. Nevertheless, there we find no evidence in support of the hypothesis that homosexual men and women are intrinsically opposite-sex typical in terms of mate preferences.     

Gender Differences in Shame in Patients with Binge‐Eating Disorder

Objective: To examine the relationship between shame and the behavioral and attitudinal features of eating disorders in men and women diagnosed with binge‐eating disorder (BED). Research Methods and Procedures: Participants were 188 consecutively evaluated adults (38 men and 150 women) who met Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition, criteria for BED. Participants were interviewed and completed a battery of measures assessing shame, behavioral and attitudinal features of eating disorders, and general psychological functioning. Results: Shame did not differ significantly by gender and was not associated with BMI or binge‐eating frequency. Shame was significantly associated with the attitudinal features of eating disorders, even after controlling for levels of depression and self‐esteem. When considered separately by gender and controlling for depression and self‐esteem, shame was associated with body dissatisfaction in men and with weight concern in women. Discussion: Men and women with BED, who presented for treatment, reported similar levels of shame. Overall, while shame was related to attitudinal features, the specific associations differed by gender. For men, shame was related to how dissatisfied they felt with their bodies, whereas for women, shame was associated with concerns about weight. Interestingly, shame was not related to BMI or binge‐eating frequency in men or women. These results provide preliminary support for self‐conscious emotions playing different roles in men and women with BED.     

Testosterone and intrasexual competition in men: is there any relation with digit ratio (2D:4D)?

Digit ratio 2D:4D is a sexually dimorphic characteristic and it is believed that this difference is related to high levels of prenatal testosterone and circulating testosterone in men. High levels of testosterone are also associated with traits related to competitiveness. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the relation between intrasexual competition and 2D:4D in men. One hundred thirteen college men answered a questionnaire to measure their scores of intrasexual competition and donated a saliva sample to measure their testosterone levels; finally, the finger length from both hands was measured. It was found a positive correlation between testosterone levels and intrasexual competition scores, and a negative correlation between testosterone levels and left 2D:4D. Finally, we did not find a significant association between digit ratios 2D:4D and intrasexual competition scores. Our study shows that men with higher testosterone levels also have higher intrasexual competition scores and lower values of left digit ratio 2D:4D. Further studies will have to take into account fluctuations in testosterone over the time to observe if the relation between competitiveness scores and digit ratios 2D:4D becomes significant.     

Risk for Eating Disorders Modulates Startle-Responses to Body Words

Body image disturbances are core symptoms of eating disorders (EDs). Recent evidence suggests that changes in body image may occur prior to ED onset and are not restricted to in-vivo exposure (e.g. mirror image), but also evident during presentation of abstract cues such as body shape and weight-related words. In the present study startle modulation, heart rate and subjective evaluations were examined during reading of body words and neutral words in 41 student female volunteers screened for risk of EDs. The aim was to determine if responses to body words are attributable to a general negativity bias regardless of ED risk or if activated, ED relevant negative body schemas facilitate priming of defensive responses. Heart rate and word ratings differed between body words and neutral words in the whole female sample, supporting a general processing bias for body weight and shape-related concepts in young women regardless of ED risk. Startle modulation was specifically related to eating disorder symptoms, as was indicated by significant positive correlations with self-reported body dissatisfaction. These results emphasize the relevance of examining body schema representations as a function of ED risk across different levels of responding. Peripheral-physiological measures such as the startle reflex could possibly be used as predictors of females’ risk for developing EDs in the future.     

Women Ornament Themselves for Intrasexual Competition near Ovulation,but for Intersexual Attraction in Luteal Phase

The present study examined women''s attentional bias toward ornamental objects in relation to their menstrual phase as well as to motivations of intersexual courtship or intrasexual competition. In Experiment 1, 33 healthy heterosexual women were tested in a bias-assessment visual cuing task twice: once on a high-fertility day (during the ovulatory phase) and once on a low-fertility day (during the luteal phase). They paid greater attention to pictures of ornamental objects than to pictures of non-ornamental objects near ovulation, but not during the luteal phase, suggesting an ornamental bias during the high-fertility phase. In Experiment 2, before the visual cuing task, 40 participants viewed 10 same-sex or opposite-sex facial photographs with either high or low attractiveness as priming tasks to activate the intrasexual competition or intersexual courtship motives. Results showed that women''s ornamental bias was dependent on the interaction of menstrual phase and mating motive. Specifically, the ornamental bias was observed on the high-fertility day when the subjects were primed with high-attractive same-sex images (intrasexual competition) and was observed on the low-fertility day when they were primed with high-attractive opposite-sex photographs (intersexual courtship). In conclusion, the present findings confirm the hypothesis that, during the high-fertility phase, women have an attentional bias toward ornamental objects and further support the hypothesis that the ornamental bias is driven by intrasexual competition motivation near ovulation, but driven by intersexual courtship motivation during the luteal phase.     

Analysis of Attentional Bias towards Attractive and Unattractive Body Regions among Overweight Males and Females: An Eye-Movement Study

Background

Body image distortion is highly prevalent among overweight individuals. Whilst there is evidence that body-dissatisfied women and those suffering from disordered eating show a negative attentional bias towards their own unattractive body parts and others’ attractive body parts, little is known about visual attention patterns in the area of obesity and with respect to males. Since eating disorders and obesity share common features in terms of distorted body image and body dissatisfaction, the aim of this study was to examine whether overweight men and women show a similar attentional bias.

Methods/Design

We analyzed eye movements in 30 overweight individuals (18 females) and 28 normal-weight individuals (16 females) with respect to the participants’ own pictures as well as gender- and BMI-matched control pictures (front and back view). Additionally, we assessed body image and disordered eating using validated questionnaires.

Discussion

The overweight sample rated their own body as less attractive and showed a more disturbed body image. Contrary to our assumptions, they focused significantly longer on attractive compared to unattractive regions of both their own and the control body. For one’s own body, this was more pronounced for women. A higher weight status and more frequent body checking predicted attentional bias towards attractive body parts. We found that overweight adults exhibit an unexpected and stable pattern of selective attention, with a distinctive focus on their own attractive body regions despite higher levels of body dissatisfaction. This positive attentional bias may either be an indicator of a more pronounced pattern of attentional avoidance or a self-enhancing strategy. Further research is warranted to clarify these results.     

Forced Sexual Experiences as Risk Factor for Self-Reported HIV Infection among Southern African Lesbian and Bisexual Women

Even though women who have sex with women are usually understood to be at no or very low risk for HIV infection, we explored whether lesbian and bisexual women in a geographical area with high HIV prevalence (Southern Africa) get tested for HIV and whether, among those women who get tested, there are women who live with HIV/AIDS. The study was conducted in collaboration with community-based organizations in Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe. Data were collected via written surveys of women who in the preceding year had had sex with a woman (18 years and older; N = 591). Most participating women identified as lesbian and black. Almost half of the women (47.2%) reported ever having had consensual heterosexual sex. Engagement in transactional sex (lifetime) was reported by 18.6% of all women. Forced sex by men or women was reported by 31.1% of all women. A large proportion of the women reported to ever have been tested for HIV (78.3%); number of lifetime female and male partners was independently associated with having been tested; women who had engaged in transactional sex with women only or with women and men were less likely to have been tested. Self-reported HIV prevalence among tested women who knew their serostatus was 9.6%. Besides age, the sole independent predictor of a positive serostatus was having experienced forced sex by men, by women, or by both men and women. Study findings indicate that despite the image of invulnerability, HIV/AIDS is a reality for lesbian and bisexual women in Southern Africa. Surprisingly, it is not sex with men per se, but rather forced sex that is the important risk factor for self-reported HIV infection among the participating women. HIV/AIDS policy should also address the needs of lesbian, bisexual and other women who have sex with women.     

Appearance vs. Health Reasons for Seeking Treatment Among Obese Patients with Binge Eating Disorder

Objectives : This study examined reasons for seeking treatment reported by obese patients diagnosed with binge eating disorder (BED). Research Methods and Procedures : Participants were 248 adults (58 men and 190 women) who met DSM criteria for BED. Participants were recruited through advertisements for treatment studies looking for persons who wanted to “stop binge eating and lose weight.” Patients’ reasons for seeking treatment were examined with respect to demography (gender and age), obesity (BMI and age of onset), features of eating disorders, and associated psychological functioning (depression and self‐esteem). Results : Of the 248 participants, 64% reported health concerns and 36% reported appearance concerns as their primary reason for seeking treatment. Reasons for seeking treatment did not differ significantly by gender. Patients seeking treatment because of appearance‐related reasons had lower BMIs than those reporting health‐related reasons (34.8 vs. 38.5, respectively), but they reported greater body dissatisfaction, more features of eating disorders, and lower self‐esteem. Discussion : Reasons that prompt treatment seeking among obese individuals with BED reflect meaningful patient characteristics and, therefore, warrant assessment and consideration during treatment planning. Further research is needed to determine whether reasons for treatment seeking among different obese patient groups affect treatment outcomes.     

Frequency of Discrimination,Harassment, and Violence in Lesbian,Gay Men,and Bisexual in Italy

Background

This cross-sectional study assessed the frequency of discrimination, harassment, and violence and the associated factors among a random sample of 1000 lesbian, gay men, and bisexual women and men recruited from randomly selected public venues in Italy.

Methods

A face-to-face interview sought information about: socio-demographics, frequency of discrimination, verbal harassment, and physical and sexual violence because of their sexual orientation, and their fear of suffering each types of victimization.

Results

In the whole sample, 28.3% and 11.9% self-reported at least one episode of victimization because of the sexual orientation in their lifetime and in the last year. Those unmarried, compared to the others, and with a college degree or higher, compared to less educated respondents, were more likely to have experienced an episode of victimization in their lifetime. Lesbians, compared to bisexual, had almost twice the odds of experiencing an episode of victimization. The most commonly reported experiences across the lifetime were verbal harassment, discrimination, and physical or sexual violence. Among those who had experienced one episode of victimization in their lifetime, 42.1% self-reported one episode in the last year. Perceived fear of suffering violence because of their sexual orientation, measured on a 10-point Likert scale with a higher score indicative of greater fear, ranges from 5.7 for verbal harassment to 6.4 for discrimination. Participants were more likely to have fear of suffering victimization because of their sexual orientation if they were female (compared to male), lesbian and gay men (compared to bisexual women and men), unmarried (compared to the others), and if they have already suffered an episode of victimization (compared to those who have not suffered an episode).

Conclusions

The study provides important insights into the violence experiences of lesbian, gay men, and bisexual women and men and the results may serve for improving policy initiatives to reduce such episodes.