Human remains from Blombos Cave, South Africa: (1997-1998 excavations)

The Middle Stone Age (MSA) layers at Blombos Cave contain abundant bifacial Still Bay points, formal and ad hoc bone artefacts, and an intentionally incised bone piece. These artefacts add weight to arguments that some aspects of modern human behavior developed earlier in sub-Saharan Africa than elsewhere. Four human teeth were recovered from the MSA strata at Blombos during the 1997-1998 excavations. Two are heavily worn deciduous teeth, and two are incomplete permanent premolar crowns. The Blombos di(1)is comparatively large in relation to modern African homologues, falling within the lower part of the observed Neandertal range. The dm(1)and P(3)are comparable to modern teeth and smaller than most Neandertal crowns. The premolars preserve horizontal circum-cervical striae that suggest palliative toothpick use. The di(1)evinces labial scratches that resemble neither the "cutmarks" that have been observed on Neandertal incisors, nor the striae that have been recorded on modern human teeth.     

Announcing a Still Bay industry at Sibudu Cave, South Africa

Sibudu Cave in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, has a long Middle Stone Age (MSA) sequence with good organic preservation. The uppermost MSA sequence includes industries attributed to the final and late MSA and the Howiesons Poort. Below the Howiesons Poort are two layers containing some thin, bifacial lanceolate points, mostly in the form of distal and proximal fragments. These double-pointed foliates are the fossile directeur of the Still Bay Industry, and importantly, this Sibudu industry provides confirmation that the Still Bay predates the Howiesons Poort Industry. Technologically, the points from Sibudu are comparable to those from other South African sites with Still Bay occurrences (e.g., Blombos Cave and Hollow Rock Shelter). Although dating of the Sibudu Still Bay is preliminary, its age falls within the range of that at Blombos. For the past two decades, archaeologists have rejected the idea of a Still Bay Industry occurring outside of the Western Cape, but the Still Bay at Sibudu shows that this industry was, indeed, geographically widespread.     

Increasing human tooth length between birth and 5.4 years

Most previous studies of tooth development have used fractional stages of tooth formation to construct growth standards suitable for aging juvenile skeletal material. A simple alternative for determining dental age is to measure tooth length throughout development. In this study, data on tooth length development are presented from 63 individuals of known age at death, between birth and 5.4 years, from an archeological population recovered from the crypt of Christ Church, Spitalfields, London. Isolated developing teeth (304 deciduous, 269 permanent) were measured in millimeters and plotted against individual age. Regression equations to estimate age from a given tooth length, are presented for each deciduous maxillary and mandibular tooth type and for permanent maxillary and mandibular incisors, canines, and first permanent molars. Data on the earliest age of root completion of deciduous teeth and initial mineralization and crown completion of some permanent teeth in this sample are given, as well as the average crown height and total tooth length from a small number of unworn teeth. This method provides an easy, quantitative and objective measure of dental formation appropriate for use by archeologists and anthropologists. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Deciduous dentition and eruption pattern in late Miocene Pachyrukhinae (Hegetotheriidae,Notoungulata) from La Pampa Province,Argentina

The study of juvenile remains of Paedotherium Burmeister from Cerro Azul Formation (La Pampa Province, Argentina; late Miocene) is presented. Upper and lower deciduous dentition (or permanent molars supposed to be associated with non-preserved deciduous teeth) are recognised. Several ontogenetic stages are distinguished among juveniles, according to the degree of wear and the replaced deciduous teeth. Besides, some morphological and metrical differences are observed along the crown height. Deciduous cheek teeth are high-crowned and placed covering the apex of the corresponding permanent tooth. The height of the crown and the degree of wear allow establishing the pattern of dental replacement of deciduous and permanent premolars in a posterior–anterior direction (DP/dp4–2 and P/p4–2), as well as the eruption of M/m3 before DP/dp4 is replaced. Some of the studied remains are recognised as young individuals of Tremacyllus Ameghino, but with complete permanent dentition, which leads to propose a different timing in the dental replacement with respect to Paedotherium; they also allow the establishment of an opposite premolar eruption pattern, from P/p2 to P/p4. This knowledge of the deciduous dentition of Paedotherium suggests the need of revising the morphological and metrical characters previously used for defining species within this taxon.     

Extending the chronology of deposits at Blombos Cave, South Africa, back to 140 ka using optical dating of single and multiple grains of quartz

Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) measurements are reported for both single aliquots (of two different sizes) and single grains of quartz from deposits within Blombos Cave. Ages have been obtained for six sediments from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) occupation levels and for two sterile sands, one underlying the archaeological sediment and one overlying the Later Stone Age occupation levels. The ages for the archaeological sediments were obtained from single-grain measurements that enabled unrepresentative grains to be rejected. The MSA occupation levels have ages that, within error limits, are in stratigraphic order and fall between the OSL age for the oldest dune sand (143.2+/-5.5 ka) and a previously published OSL age for the sterile sand ( approximately 70 ka) that separates the Middle and Later Stone Age deposits. The earliest MSA archaeological phase, M3, from where fragments of ochre were found as well as human teeth, is dated to 98.9+/-4.5 ka, coinciding with the sea-level high of oxygen isotope substage 5c. The cave then appears to be unoccupied until oxygen isotope substage 5a on the basis of four OSL ages for archaeological phase M2, ranging from 84.6+/-5.8 to 76.8+/-3.1 ka; these levels contained large hearths and bone tools. An age of 72.7+/-3.1 ka was obtained for the final MSA archaeological phase, M1, from which deliberately engraved ochre and shell beads were recovered along with bifacial stone points. We conclude that the periods of occupation were determined by changes in sea level, with abundant sources of seafood available in times of high sea level and with the cave being closed by the accumulation of large dunes during periods of low sea level, such as during oxygen isotope stages 4 and 6.     

The effect of birthweight on tooth-size variability in twins.

Studies indicate that low birthweight (LBW) children display reduced deciduous tooth size but there is little information about permanent tooth size. It has also been shown that dental fluctuating asymmetry (FA) increases in response to various environmental influences, but the relationship between birthweight and FA remains unclear. The aim of this study was to compare tooth size and asymmetry, according to birthweight, in the deciduous and permanent dentitions of a sample of Australian twins. The study sample comprised 436 twins, classified into 2 groups: normal birthweight (NBW > 2500 g) and low birthweight (LBW < or = 2500 g). For each individual it was generally possible to measure maximum mesiodistal crown diameters of both deciduous and permanent central incisors from serial dental models. Correlations were calculated between tooth-size variables and birthweight; subsequently comparisons of tooth size and FA were made between the LBW and NBW samples using Student's t tests. Small positive correlations (around .1) were noted between birthweight and tooth-size variables. There was no evidence of tooth-size reduction in the LBW male sample, but the LBW females displayed tooth-size reduction of approximately 2-3% for both deciduous and permanent incisors, compared to the NBW females. There was no evidence of increased FA in the LBW individuals of either sex. These findings indicate that developing teeth are generally well-protected from developmental disturbances during prenatal and perinatal periods. Further research is needed to clarify the biological basis of an apparently true but weak association between tooth size and birthweight.     

Patterns of dental enamel defects at ancient Mendes, Egypt.

The dental remains of 88 individuals from Old Kingdom, First Intermediate, and Greco-Roman periods at the ancient Egyptian site of Mendes (Tell er-Rub(c)a) were examined for dental enamel hypoplasia, and the results reported here provide some of the first comparative data on enamel defects in ancient Egypt. Overall, 48% of the individuals in the sample have one or more teeth with hypoplasia, with 17% of permanent teeth and 8% of deciduous teeth affected. The permanent teeth account for 87% of the total number of affected teeth, a prevalence over deciduous teeth that is significant at alpha = 0.05. Permanent and deciduous teeth display different patterns of hypoplasia, with the former exhibiting both discrete pitting and linear furrowing, and the latter exhibiting only pits. Teeth with linear defects significantly outnumber those with pits by a factor of more than three to one. Only permanent canines display more than one lesion on a tooth, with a mean of 1.4 defects per affected tooth. Although calculation of the age of insult from lesion position is imprecise, it appears that stress episodes occurred most commonly between approximately 3-5 years of age. The presence of pits in the deciduous dentition, however, suggests that physiological stresses began in utero. There is no statistically significant difference in the frequency of enamel defects between males and females. An observed decrease in the frequency of defects from the Old Kingdom period to the subsequent First Intermediate and Greco-Roman periods is not significant at alpha = 0.05, although such a decrease is expected given epigraphic and other data that refer to prolonged drought and malnutrition in the late Old Kingdom. The calculated chi(2) value of 3.83 is significant at the 0.10 level, however, and since our sample is rather small and the magnitude of the chi-square statistic is a function of sample size, we recommend that future research investigate further the relationship between the frequency of enamel defects and the time period in which they occur.     

Taphonomic analysis of the Middle Stone Age larger mammal faunal assemblage from Blombos Cave, southern Cape, South Africa

A detailed taphonomic analysis is reported for a sample of the larger mammalian faunal assemblage (>4.5 kg live body weight) from Blombos Cave. The analysis provides an assessment of human involvement in the accumulation and modification of the faunal assemblage, and precedes equally detailed analyses and separate reports of Middle Stone Age (MSA) butchery, transport, and hunting behaviour. At Blombos, there are clear differences in the relative abundances of ungulate body size classes, with the lower MSA phases (upper/lower M2 and M3) showing a high representation of size 1 ungulates relative to the most recent MSA phase (M1). The bones from the earliest MSA phase (M3) have not undergone much post-depositional fragmentation, in contrast to fragments from more recent phases (M1 and upper M2). Much of this variability can be attributed to more burning activity and trampling during M1 and upper M2, which could indicate more intensive occupation. Bone surfaces are variably preserved, with high levels of exfoliation in the most recent two phases. Surface modification analyses revealed high proportions of human modification throughout the sequence, indicating that MSA humans were responsible for accumulating most of the larger mammals. After discard, the bones were modified by scavenging carnivores, leading to a moderate amount of density-mediated destruction and tooth-marking. Carnivores independently accumulated some of the smaller ungulates, mainly in the form of partially-digested remains. Raptorial birds are not implicated as major faunal accumulators. The results from Blombos are directly comparable with analogous datasets from two other sites in the Western Cape (Pinnacle Point Cave 13B and Die Kelders Cave 1). Such comparisons demonstrate that MSA faunal assemblages from nearby coastal sites have complex and different taphonomic histories both within and between sites. Because the human occupants were a major part of these processes, MSA subsistence behaviour and site use was also quite variable over time and space.     

Incremental enamel development in modern human deciduous anterior teeth

This study reconstructs incremental enamel development for a sample of modern human deciduous mandibular (n = 42) and maxillary (n = 42) anterior (incisors and canines) teeth. Results are compared between anterior teeth, and with previous research for deciduous molars (Mahoney: Am J Phys Anthropol 144 (2011) 204-214) to identify developmental differences along the tooth row. Two hypotheses are tested: Retzius line periodicity will remain constant in teeth from the same jaw and range from 6 to 12 days among individuals, as in human permanent teeth; daily enamel secretion rates (DSRs) will not vary between deciduous teeth, as in some human permanent tooth types. A further aim is to search for links between deciduous incremental enamel development and the previously reported eruptionsequence. Retzius line periodicity in anterior teeth ranged between 5 and 6 days, but did not differ between an incisor and molar of one individual. Intradian line periodicity was 12 h. Mean cuspal DSRs varied slightly between equivalent regions along the tooth row. Mandibular incisors initiated enamel formation first, had the fastest mean DSRs, the greatest prenatal formation time, and based upon prior studies are the first deciduous tooth to erupt. Relatively rapid development in mandibular incisors in advance of early eruption may explain some of the variation in DSRs along the tooth row that cannot be explained by birth. Links between DSRs, enamel initiation times, and the deciduous eruption sequence are proposed. Anterior crown formation times presented here can contribute toward human infant age-at-death estimates. Regression equations for reconstructing formation time in worn incisors are given.     

Reduced tooth size in 45,X (Turner syndrome) females

Mean values and variances of deciduous and permanent tooth dimensions were compared between 121 45,X (Turner syndrome) females and 171 control subjects to clarify the role of the X chromosome on dental development. Although deciduous molars tended to be smaller than normal in 45,X females, there was no evidence of a reduction in tooth size for deciduous anterior teeth. In the permanent dentition, all mesiodistal dimensions were significantly smaller in 45,X females but only some of the buccolingual dimensions were smaller. The findings for deciduous tooth-size may reflect a sampling effect related to the extremely high frequency of spontaneous abortion in 45,X individuals. Results for permanent teeth are consistent with the concept of a decrease in enamel thickness in 45,X females.     

Innervation of the human upper primary dentition: Implications for understanding tooth initiation and rethinking growth and eruption patterns

Recent comparisons of humans with apes and early fossil hominids have prompted renewed interest in the study of sequences of dental growth and development. Such comparisons, however, rely on certain assumptions about tooth development and dental homology and the biological reality of distinguishing “deciduous” from “permanent” teeth. In light of earlier suggestions by Schwartz that there might be a correlation between nerves and the stem progenitors of tooth classes, and thus between nerve branch number and number of tooth classes, we studied a large sample of ～ 3 month fetuses to elucidate the nature of nerve branching patterns and the development of the primary dentition (i.e., the “deciduous” incisors, canine, and molars, and the first “permanent” molar). Contrary to expectation, variation in nerve branch patterning was the rule. If nerve fibers do have a role in tooth development, it can only be at the time of initiation, with definitive innervation occurring late in tooth development. In taking into consideration the entire span of tooth development—from initiation to innervation to eruption—and the process by which successional teeth arise (each from the external dental epithelium of a predecessor tooth), we suggest that dividing tooth growth and eruption into patterns of the “deciduous” teeth vs. those of the “permanent” is artificial and that a more meaningful approach would be the study of the entire dentition.     

Development and size of the teeth of Macaca mulatta.

A cross-sectional sample of 151 skulls from Macaca mulatta of known age and similar rearing in U.S. Primate Centers was analyzed to determine age-related "norms" of stages of development and size of teeth. The stages of development from the follicle of a deciduous incisor in the fetus to completion of the root with apex closed of the permanent third molar were related to age. The age range observed for eruption of each tooth was noted and related to its stage of development. The crown of each erupted tooth was found to be completely developed, but growth of its root continued for a longer, indeterminate period. When a deciduous tooth was exfoliated, the crown of the permanent successor was found to be completed and root growth had begun. Measurements of both mesiodistal and faciolingual diameters and of crown length of the teeth in situ and of total length and root length on roentgenograms were examined for sexual dimorphism. The faciolingual diameter of the deciduous mandibular second incisor and of both second molars showed the greatest sexual dimorphism among both diameters of all deciduous teeth. The mesiodistal and faciolingual diameters of the mandibular premolars were found to be the best dimensions in discriminant functions for identifying sex in the absence of permanent canines.     

Une reconstitution surprenante d’un fossile humain : la mandibule magdalénienne du crâne d’enfant Rochereil III

The fragmented pathological skull of a young child was discovered in a Magdalenian level in the Rochereil cave, Dordogne, France, in 1939. The bony fragments were extracted along with the surrounding soil, and completely cleaned in a laboratory. The mandible has been wrongly reconstructed. Among the nine teeth that are present on the mandible, three deciduous molars are human teeth at their correct places. Only one tooth in the incisor–canine block (the right deciduous lateral incisor) is a human tooth, but it is incorrectly positioned on the left side. The other incisors and canines implanted in this child's mandible originated from one or several young adult reindeer. These small animal teeth were probably mistaken for human pathological teeth because the child's skull and mandible showed several pathological lesions. The possibility of faulty reconstitution must be systematically considered when dealing with for all human fossils which have been discovered in the past.     

The deciduous dentition of Griphopithecus alpani from Paşalar, Turkey

Seventy-four hominoid primary teeth have been recovered from the middle Miocene site of Pa?alar, Turkey, constituting the largest sample of deciduous teeth for any species of fossil ape. Morphological features that characterize the permanent teeth of Griphopithecus alpani from the site have also been identified in some of these deciduous teeth, including a lingual pillar on the di(1)s. These features plus the overwhelming preponderance of G. alpani permanent teeth at the site suggest that all of the deciduous teeth belong to this species. Contrary to the situation in the permanent teeth, nothing in the morphology of the primary dentition suggests the representation of a second species. The age profile of the non-adult hominoids was reconstructed based on the degree and type of wear recorded on the dp4s, the most abundant deciduous tooth in the sample, assuming a similar eruption chronology to that of Pan troglodytes. This analysis indicates underrepresentation of very young individuals in the sample and high mortality for individuals belonging to the 3-5-years age cohort, a situation that could be due to the effects of stress related to weaning. The coefficient of variation and range-index values obtained for the majority of tooth types are equal to or greater than the comparable values in a sample of P. troglodytes, in some cases at much smaller sample sizes. One possible explanation for this is that there was greater sexual dimorphism in the G. alpani deciduous dentition than in Pan, which would mirror the condition of the permanent dentition.     

Nassarius kraussianus shell beads from Blombos Cave: evidence for symbolic behaviour in the Middle Stone Age

Since 1991, excavations at Blombos Cave have yielded a well-preserved sample of faunal and cultural material in Middle Stone Age (MSA) levels. The uppermost MSA phase, M1, is dated to c. 75 ka by optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and thermoluminescence, and the middle M2 phase to a provisional c. 78 ka. Artefacts unusual in a MSA context from these phases include bifacial points, bone tools, engraved ochre and engraved bone. In this paper, we describe forty-one marine tick shell beads recovered from these MSA phases and tick shell beads from Later Stone Age (LSA) levels at Blombos Cave and the Die Kelders site. Thirty-nine shell beads come from the upper M1 phase and two from M2. Morphometric, taphonomic and microscopic analysis of modern assemblages of living and dead tick shell demonstrate that the presence of perforated Nassarius kraussianus shells in the Blombos MSA levels cannot be due to natural processes or accidental transport by humans. The types of perforation seen on the MSA shells are absent on modern accumulations of dead shells and not attributable to post-depositional damage. Their location, size, and microscopic features are similar to those obtained experimentally by piercing the shell wall, through the aperture, with a sharp bone point. Use-wear, recorded on the perforation edge, the outer lip, and the parietal wall of the aperture indicates the shells having being strung and worn. MSA shell beads differ significantly in size, perforation type, wear pattern and shade compared to LSA beads and this eliminates the possibility of mixing across respective levels. Thirty-one beads were found in four groups of five to twelve beads, each group being recovered in a single square or in two adjacent sub-squares during a single excavation day. Within a group, shells display a similar shade, use-wear pattern and perforation size suggesting their provenance from the same beadwork item, lost or disposed during a single event. The likely symbolic significance of these finds suggests levels of cognitively modern behaviour not previously associated with MSA people.     

Additional evidence for bone technology in the southern African Middle Stone Age

Few Middle Stone Age sites have yielded convincing evidence for a complex bone technology, a behavior often associated with the emergence of modern cultures. Here, we review the published evidence for Middle Stone Age bone tools from southern Africa, analyze an additional nine bone artifacts recently recovered from Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, describe an unpublished bone tool from probable Middle Stone Age levels at Peers Cave, examine a single bone awl found at Blombosch Sands (an open site near Blombos Cave), and reappraise marked bone artifacts and a bone point recovered from Klasies River. To determine the chronological and cultural attribution of these artifacts, document bone-manufacturing techniques associated with the southern African MSA, and discuss the symbolic significance of the markings present on some of these objects we use (1) available contextual information; (2) morphometric comparison of Later Stone Age, Modern San, and purported Middle Stone Age projectile points; (3) analysis of the carbon/nitrogen content of bone tools and faunal remains from Peers and Blombos caves; and (4) microscopic analysis of traces of manufacture and use. Previously undescribed bone artifacts from Blombos Cave include a massive point manufactured on weathered bone, two complete awls and two awl tips manufactured on small-sized mammal and bird bone, a probable projectile point with a tang manufactured by knapping and scraping, a shaft fragment modified by percussion, used as retoucher and bearing a set of incised lines on the middle of the periosteal surface, and two fragments with possible engravings. The point from Peers Cave can be assigned to the Middle Stone Age and bears tiny markings reminiscent of those recorded on projectile points from Blombos and used as marks of ownership on San arrow points. The awl from Blombosch Sands and the bone point from Klasies River can be attributed to the Later Stone Age. Two notched objects from Klasies are attributed to the Middle Stone Age and interpreted as tools used on soft material; a third object bears possible deliberate symbolic engravings. Although low in number, the instances of bone artifacts attributable to the Middle Stone Age is increasing and demonstrates that the bone tools from Blombos Cave are not isolated instances. New discoveries of bone tools dating to this time period can be expected.     

Size and morphology of the permanent dentition in prehistoric Ohio Valley Amerindians.

Metric and morphological characterizations of the permanent teeth from a total of 155 prehistoric Amerindians are presented. The individuals represent samples from three Ohio Valley burial complexes (considered together as the Late Diffuse group): Glacial Kame, Adena and Ohio Hopewell. Metric data include common measures of central tendency and dispersion. From these measures estimates and analyses of the magnitude of sexual dimorphism and relative variability are presented as well as analyses of the patterns of these estimates. Forty morphological characters are also tabulated. The results indicate a number of provisional hypotheses: the generally larger tooth size of the Late Archaic Indian Knoll when compared to the Late Diffuse groups is consistent with the hypothesis of mitigated selective pressures in more technologically advanced groups; although tooth size is smaller in the Late Diffuse groups, dental morphology is as complex, or more so when compared to the Indian Knoll group. Since morphology and size do not covary exactly the biocultural forces resulting in smaller tooth size do not seem to act as strongly on dental morphology; odontological differences within the Late Diffuse arise primarily between the Glacial Kame-Adena and the Ohio Hopewell. These differences correspond to major biocultural changes in this area; although provisional hypotheses concerning odontological variability are erected, hypotheses concerning evolutionary trends must await the discovery of evolving lineages within these groups; similarities are noted among all compared groups including the pattern and magnitude of sexual dimorphism and relative variability. These parameters may be similar for all eastern Amerindians during this period; finally, the morphology of the deciduous dentition, which generally predicts that of the permanent teeth, is found to be less complex than the permanent teeth. This may be the result of a selective disadvantage for the individuals in the deciduous dentition sample which is reflected in the dentition.     

Homologies of the anterior teeth in Indriidae and a functional basis for dental reduction in primates

In a recent paper Schwartz ('74) proposes revised homologies of the deciduous and permanent teeth in living lemuriform primates of the family Indriidae. However, new evidence provided by the deciduous dentition ofAvahi suggests that the traditional interpretations are correct, specifically: (1) the lateral teeth in the dental scraper of Indriidae are homologous with the incisors of Lemuridae and Lorisidae, not the canines; (2) the dental formula for the lower deciduous teeth of indriids is 2.1.3; (3) the dental formula for the lower permanent teeth of indriids is 2.0.2.3; and (4) decrease in number of incisors during primate evolution was usually in the sequence I3, then I2, then I1. It appears that dental reduction during primate evolution occurred at the ends of integrated incisor and cheek tooth units to minimize disruption of their functional integrity.     

Techno-Cultural Characterization of the MIS 5 (c. 105 – 90 Ka) Lithic Industries at Blombos Cave,Southern Cape,South Africa

Blombos Cave is well known as an important site for understanding the evolution of symbolically mediated behaviours among Homo sapiens during the Middle Stone Age, and during the Still Bay in particular. The lower part of the archaeological sequence (M3 phase) contains 12 layers dating to MIS 5 with ages ranging from 105 to 90 ka ago (MIS 5c to 5b) that provide new perspectives on the technological behaviour of these early humans. The new data obtained from our extensive technological analysis of the lithic material enriches our currently limited knowledge of this time period in the Cape region. By comparing our results with previously described lithic assemblages from sites south of the Orange River, we draw new insights on the extent of the techno-cultural ties between these sites and the M3 phase at Blombos Cave and highlight the importance of this phase within the Middle Stone Age cultural stratigraphy.