Field-based artificial crossings indicate partial compatibility of reciprocal crosses between <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus sylvestris</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus mugo</Emphasis> and unexpected chloroplast DNA inheritance

Crossability relationships between Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and mountain dwarf pine (Pinus mugo Turra) was studied, using artificial pollination approach. Partial compatibility of the reciprocal crossings of these species was proved experimentally, validating the idea of a spontaneous formation of their hybrid swarms under natural conditions. The hybrids were validated using organellar DNA markers and nuclear DNA microsatellites. Based on the percentage of filled seeds, the interspecific crossings were less efficient than the intraspecific cross-pollinations of P. sylvestris and P. mugo individuals. Both species were found to intercross readily with individuals of their putative hybrid swarm, P. mugo exhibiting a higher hybridological affinity towards putatively hybrid individuals than P. sylvestris. Validation of the hybrids confirmed the paternal inheritance of chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) in the combination P. sylvestris × P. mugo only. Surprisingly, in the reciprocal crossing P. mugo × P. sylvestris, maternal inheritance of cpDNA was revealed. Obtained results offer a new insight into the direction and intensity of gene flow within the hybrid swarms of Scots pine and mountain dwarf pine.     

Fine mapping of <Emphasis Type="Italic">BoGL1</Emphasis>, a gene controlling the glossy green trait in cabbage (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Brassica oleracea</Emphasis> L. Var. <Emphasis Type="Italic">capitata</Emphasis>)

The cuticular wax covering epidermal cells causes the glaucous appearance in cabbage. As a protective barrier, cuticular wax plays various roles in protection against biotic and abiotic stresses. This is the first gene mapping report of a dominant glossy green cabbage mutant. In the present paper, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) demonstrated that the wax crystals were severely reduced in the mutant, which indicates that the glossy green phenotype is caused by cuticular wax reduction. Genetic analysis revealed that the glossy trait is controlled by a single dominant gene. Through primer screening and fine mapping, the mutant gene BoGL1 (Brassica oleracea glossy 1) was delimited to the end of chromosome C08 by the flanking marker SSRC08–76 at a genetic distance of 0.2 cM. Two genes homologous to CER1 (ECERIFERUM 1), a gene related to wax biosynthesis in Arabidopsis, were located in the mapped region. Expressional analysis revealed that the Bol018504 gene was severely suppressed but that no nucleotide variation was found by sequencing. These results lay the foundation for the functional analysis of BoGL1, and they will accelerate the research on wax metabolism in cabbage.     

Changes in leaf epicuticular wax,gas exchange and biochemistry metabolism between <Emphasis Type="Italic">Jatropha mollissima</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Jatropha curcas</Emphasis> under semi-arid conditions

Jatropha curcas and Jatropha mollissima plants were evaluated under conditions of high (HSM) and low (LSM) soil moisture in a semi-arid environment, as changes in the content and concentration of epicuticular wax and the leaf metabolism which could have a relationship with drought tolerance. Besides epicuticular wax, gas exchange, antioxidant system and biochemical parameters of the photosynthetic metabolism were measured. The epicuticular wax content increased only in J. mollissima leaves 95 % under LSM, when compared with HSM conditions. Therefore, J. curcas invested less in the production of long-chain n-alkanes than did J. mollissima under LSM conditions. J. mollissima plants showed the highest CO₂ assimilation rate during the HSM period compared to J. curcas. Both species showed high stability in some leaf biochemistry products, highlighting the highest sugar content, free amino acids, total soluble protein, and photosynthetic pigments in the leaves of J. mollissima plants under both of the soil moisture conditions. Moreover, the stability and performance of the different parameters, such as morphologic variables, seem to allow J. mollissima plants to tolerate semi-arid conditions.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Candida krusei</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Candida glabrata</Emphasis> reduce the filamentation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Candida albicans</Emphasis> by downregulating expression of <Emphasis Type="Italic">HWP1</Emphasis> gene

Pathogenicity of Candida albicans is associated with its capacity switch from yeast-like to hyphal growth. The hyphal form is capable to penetrate the epithelial surfaces and to damage the host tissues. Therefore, many investigations have focused on mechanisms that control the morphological transitions of C. albicans. Recently, certain studies have showed that non-albicans Candida species can reduce the capacity of C. albicans to form biofilms and to develop candidiasis in animal models. Then, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of Candida krusei and Candida glabrata on the morphogenesis of C. albicans. Firstly, the capacity of reference and clinical strains of C. albicans in forming hyphae was tested in vitro. After that, the expression of HWP1 (hyphal wall protein 1) gene was determined by quantitative real-time PCR (polymerase chain reaction) assay. For both reference and clinical strains, a significant inhibition of the hyphae formation was observed when C. albicans was incubated in the presence of C. krusei or C. glabrata compared to the control group composed only by C. albicans. In addition, the culture mixed of C. albicans-C. krusei or C. albicans-C. glabrata reduced significantly the expression of HWP1 gene of C. albicans in relation to single cultures of this specie. In both filamentation and gene expression assays, C. krusei showed the higher inhibitory activity on the morphogenesis of C. albicans compared to C. glabrata. C. krusei and C. glabrata are capable to reduce the filamentation of C. albicans and consequently decrease the expression of the HWP1 gene.     

Flower palate structure of the aquatic bladderworts <Emphasis Type="Italic">Utricularia bremii</Emphasis> Heer and <Emphasis Type="Italic">U. minor</Emphasis> L. from section <Emphasis Type="Italic">Utricularia</Emphasis> (Lentibulariaceae)

There is an enormous diversity in the structure of the flower palate of the carnivorous rootless genus Utricularia. This study aims to examine the structure of the palates in Utricularia bremii Heer and U. minor L of the Utricularia sect. Utricularia, which have a glandular palate type. In both species, the palate has only one type of glandular trichomes. Because of the occurrence of cell wall ingrowths in its glandular cells, any exudation may be transported via eccrinous secretion. It was proposed that the palate trichomes of the examined species act as scent glands and that the palate may play a role as an unguentarium. Both U. bremii and U. minor are of an open flower type. Thus, U. bremii and U. minor flowers can be penetrated by small, weak insects, which then easily have access to their generative structure. Small Hymenoptera (member of families Mymaridae and Braconidae) were observed as flower visitors of the male-sterile species Utricularia bremii.     

The composition of fatty acids in the endosperm and embryo lipids of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus sibirica</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">P. sylvestris</Emphasis> seeds

The fatty acid (FA) composition of storage lipids in the seed endosperms and embryos of two pine species, Pinus sibirica and P. sylvestris, and possible biosynthetic pathways of these acids were studied by the GLC method. Linoleic acid predominated in the embryo and endosperm lipids of both P. sibirica (43.5 and 42.6%) and P. sylvestris (44.8 and 46.8%); this was evidently determined by a high expression of the gene encoding stearoyl-Δ9 acyl-lipid desaturase and the fad2 gene encoding microsomal ω6 acyl-lipid desaturase. P. sibirica lipids of the embryo and endosperm contained more oleic acid (22.0 and 24.0%, respectively) than corresponding P. sylvestris lipids (18.7 and 14%). Storage lipids of conifer seeds contain Δ5-unsaturated FAs: taxoleic (18:2Δ5,9), ephedrenic (18:2Δ5,11), pinoleenic (18:3Δ5,9,12), skiadonic (18:3Δ5,11, 14), and coniferonic (18:4Δ5,9,12,15). In the endosperm and embryos of P. sylvestris, the content of pinolenic acid was higher (22.1 and 19.6%) than in P. sibirica seeds (19.1 and 18.6%).     

A putative <Emphasis Type="Italic">NEM1</Emphasis> homologue regulates lipid droplet biogenesis <Emphasis Type="Italic">via PAH1</Emphasis> in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tetrahymena thermophila</Emphasis>

Nuclear envelope morphology protein 1 (NEM1) along with a phosphatidate phosphatase (PAH1) regulates lipid homeostasis and membrane biogenesis in yeast and mammals. We investigated four putative NEM1 homologues (TtNEM1A, TtNEM1B, TtNEM1C and TtNEM1D) in the Tetrahymena thermophila genome. Disruption of TtNEM1B, TtNEM1C or TtNEM1D did not compromise normal cell growth. In contrast, we were unable to generate knockout strain of TtNEM1A under the same conditions, indicating that TtNEM1A is essential for Tetrahymena growth. Interestingly, loss of TtNEM1B but not TtNEM1C or TtNEM1D caused a reduction in lipid droplet number. Similar to yeast and mammals, TtNem1B of Tetrahymena exerts its function via Pah1, since we found that PAH1 overexpression rescued loss of Nem1 function. However, unlike NEM1 in other organisms, TtNEM1B does not regulate ER/nuclear morphology. Similarly, neither TtNEM1C nor TtNEM1D is required to maintain normal ER morphology. While Tetrahymena PAH1 was shown to functionally replace yeast PAH1 earlier, we observed that Tetrahymena NEM1 homologues did not functionally replace yeast NEM1. Overall, our results suggest the presence of a conserved cascade for regulation of lipid homeostasis and membrane biogenesis in Tetrahymena. Our results also suggest a Nem1-independent function of Pah1 in the regulation of ER morphology in Tetrahymena.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Lecanicillium muscarium</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Adalia bipunctata</Emphasis> combination for the control of black bean aphid<Emphasis Type="Italic">, Aphis fabae</Emphasis>

The predator Adalia bipunctata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and the entomopathogenic fungus Lecanicillium muscarium, have been considered as potential biological control against aphids. While it can be difficult to achieve a high control level of Aphis fabae Scopoli (Hemiptera: Aphididae) using only a single beneficial agent, the research presented here aimed to determine the interaction between L. muscarium and A. bipunctata potential for control against A. fabae. Lecanicillium muscarium was found to cause about 30% mortality in A. bipunctata and with a reduction in feeding by about 15%. However, co-application of A. bipunctata and L. muscarium can cause an addititive effect in reducing aphid populations, resulting in about 90% reduction in aphid populations compared with control treatment. Thus, these two biocontrol agents have the potential to be complementary. This research study demonstrates that it is possible to combine A. bipunctata with L. muscarium to provide a sustainable method for management of A. fabae on broad bean cropping system and that field studies are required.     

Role of Arabidopsis <Emphasis Type="Italic">ABF1</Emphasis>/<Emphasis Type="Italic">3</Emphasis>/<Emphasis Type="Italic">4</Emphasis> during <Emphasis Type="Italic">det1</Emphasis> germination in salt and osmotic stress conditions

Key message

Arabidopsis det1 mutants exhibit salt and osmotic stress resistant germination. This phenotype requires HY5, ABF1, ABF3, and ABF4.

Abstract

While DE-ETIOLATED 1 (DET1) is well known as a negative regulator of light development, here we describe how det1 mutants also exhibit altered responses to salt and osmotic stress, specifically salt and mannitol resistant germination. LONG HYPOCOTYL 5 (HY5) positively regulates both light and abscisic acid (ABA) signalling. We found that hy5 suppressed the det1 salt and mannitol resistant germination phenotype, thus, det1 stress resistant germination requires HY5. We then queried publically available microarray datasets to identify genes downstream of HY5 that were differentially expressed in det1 mutants. Our analysis revealed that ABA regulated genes, including ABA RESPONSIVE ELEMENT BINDING FACTOR 3 (ABF3), are downregulated in det1 seedlings. We found that ABF3 is induced by salt in wildtype seeds, while homologues ABF4 and ABF1 are repressed, and all three genes are underexpressed in det1 seeds. We then investigated the role of ABF3, ABF4, and ABF1 in det1 phenotypes. Double mutant analysis showed that abf3, abf4, and abf1 all suppress the det1 salt/osmotic stress resistant germination phenotype. In addition, abf1 suppressed det1 rapid water loss and open stomata phenotypes. Thus interactions between ABF genes contribute to det1 salt/osmotic stress response phenotypes.

     

Clinical strains of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lactobacillus</Emphasis> reduce the filamentation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Candida albicans</Emphasis> and protect <Emphasis Type="Italic">Galleria mellonella</Emphasis> against experimental candidiasis

Candida albicans is the most common human fungal pathogen and can grow as yeast or filaments, depending on the environmental conditions. The filamentous form is of particular interest because it can play a direct role in adherence and pathogenicity. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of three clinical strains of Lactobacillus on C. albicans filamentation as well as their probiotic potential in pathogen-host interactions via an experimental candidiasis model study in Galleria mellonella. We used the reference strain Candida albicans ATCC 18804 and three clinical strains of Lactobacillus: L. rhamnosus strain 5.2, L. paracasei strain 20.3, and L. fermentum strain 20.4. First, the capacity of C. albicans to form hyphae was tested in vitro through association with the Lactobacillus strains. After that, we verified the ability of these strains to attenuate experimental candidiasis in a Galleria mellonella model through a survival curve assay. Regarding the filamentation assay, a significant reduction in hyphae formation of up to 57% was observed when C. albicans was incubated in the presence of the Lactobacillus strains, compared to a control group composed of only C. albicans. In addition, when the larvae were pretreated with Lactobacillus spp. prior to C. albicans infection, the survival rate of G. mellonela increased in all experimental groups. We concluded that Lactobacillus influences the growth and expression C. albicans virulence factors, which may interfere with the pathogenicity of these microorganisms.     

Mutagenesis testing using the <Emphasis Type="Italic">LacZ</Emphasis> reporter activity of the reparation gene <Emphasis Type="Italic">mus209</Emphasis> in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Drosophila melanogaster</Emphasis>

We studied a set of Drosophila melanogaster strains that could be potentially suitable for testing a variety of mutagenic factors. Their genomes contained insertions of the enhancer trap P {lacW}-in which the activity of the LacZ reporter is under the control of the reparation genes’ regulatory region. We demonstrated that the beta-galactosidase reporter, which is encoded by insertion of P {lacW} element in the gene mus209, is induced by irradiation in the cells of the salivary glands and wing imaginal discs. Despite the fact that the reporting coloration is not associated with the dose of radiation treatment, we found that the induction threshold of the reporter is different for these tissues. Thus, coloration in salivary glands is detectable after the dose of 200 rad and above, whereas the imaginal discs get colored with 500 rads and above. Thereby, multiple thresholds for induction of the reporter in the various tissues allow approximating the received dose.     

Reducing diacetyl production of wine by overexpressing <Emphasis Type="Italic">BDH1</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">BDH2</Emphasis> in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saccharomyces uvarum</Emphasis>

As a byproduct of yeast valine metabolism during fermentation, diacetyl can produce a buttery aroma in wine. However, high diacetyl concentrations generate an aromatic off-flavor and poor quality in wine. 2,3-Butanediol dehydrogenase encoded by BDH1 can catalyze the two reactions of acetoin from diacetyl and 2,3-butanediol from acetoin. BDH2 is a gene adjacent to BDH1, and these genes are regulated reciprocally. In this study, BDH1 and BDH2 were overexpressed in Saccharomyces uvarum to reduce the diacetyl production of wine either individually or in combination. Compared with those in the host strain WY1, the diacetyl concentrations in the recombinant strains WY1-1 with overexpressed BDH1, WY1-2 with overexpressed BDH2 alone, and WY1-12 with co-overexpressed BDH1 and BDH2 were decreased by 39.87, 33.42, and 46.71%, respectively. BDH2 was only responsible for converting diacetyl into acetoin, but not for the metabolic pathway of acetoin to 2,3-butanediol in S. uvarum. This study provided valuable insights into diacetyl reduction in wine.     

Overexpression of the ABC transporter gene <Emphasis Type="Italic">TsABCG11</Emphasis> increases cuticle lipids and abiotic stress tolerance in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arabidopsis</Emphasis>

The cuticle, composed primarily of wax and cutin, covers most plant aerial surfaces and plays a vital role in interactions between plants and their environment. Some ATP-binding cassette G subfamily (ABCG) members are involved in cuticular lipid molecule exportation to outside in the plant surface. Thellungiella salsugineum, a relative of Arabidopsis thaliana with a heavy cuticle, has extreme stress tolerance. TsABCG11, an ABCG transporter was cloned (GenBank accession number JQ389853), and its structure was studied. qRT-PCR showed that TsABCG11 expression varied in different organs of T. salsugineum and was upregulated under ABA, NaCl, drought and cold conditions. The rosette leaves from 4-week-old TsABCG11 overexpressed (OE) Arabidopsis plants displayed lower rates of water loss and decreased chlorophyll-extracted rates compared to wild-type plants. TsABCG11-OE plants also exhibited significantly increased total cuticular wax and cutin monomer amounts, mainly due to prominent changes in the C₂₉, C₃₁, and C₃₃ alkanes in the wax and C18:2 dioic in cutin monomers, respectively. TsABCG11-OE seedlings exhibit lower root growth inhibition under 100 mM of NaCl or 1 µM of ABA than the wild type. Four-week-old TsABCG11-OE plants exhibited higher photosynthetic rates and water-use efficiency under cold stress (4 °C) than control plants. These results indicate that TsABCG11 plays an important role in cuticle lipid exportation and is involved in abiotic stresses, probably having a close relationship with extreme stress tolerance in T. salsugineum.     

Revision of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Serrulati</Emphasis> species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Penstemon</Emphasis> section <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saccanthera</Emphasis> subsection <Emphasis Type="Italic">Serrulati</Emphasis>

A revision of Penstemon sect. Saccanthera subsect. Serrulati includes a new species (P. salmonensis), a new variety (P. triphyllus var. infernalis), and the elevation of a subspecies to species (P. curtiflorus), bringing the total number of species to eight, which are keyed and described, complete with nomenclature and type citations.     

Identification of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pm58</Emphasis> from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aegilops tauschii</Emphasis>

Key message

A novel powdery mildew-resistance gene, designated Pm58, was introgressed directly from Aegilops tauschii to hexaploid wheat, mapped to chromosome 2DS, and confirmed to be effective under field conditions. Selectable KASP? markers were developed for MAS.

Abstract

Powdery mildew caused by Blumeria graminis (DC.) f. sp. tritici (Bgt) remains a significant threat to wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) production. The rapid breakdown of race-specific resistance to Bgt reinforces the need to identify novel sources of resistance. The d-genome species, Aegilops tauschii, is an excellent source of disease resistance that is transferrable to T. aestivum. The powdery mildew-resistant Ae. tauschii accession TA1662 (2n?=?2x?=?DD) was crossed directly with the susceptible hard white wheat line KS05HW14 (2n?=?6x?=?AABBDD) followed by backcrossing to develop a population of 96 BC₂F₄ introgression lines (ILs). Genotyping-by-sequencing was used to develop a genome-wide genetic map that was anchored to the Ae. tauschii reference genome. A detached-leaf Bgt assay was used to screen BC₂F_4:6 ILs, and resistance was found to segregate as a single locus (χ?=?2.0, P value?=?0.157). The resistance gene, referred to as Pm58, mapped to chromosome 2DS. Pm58 was evaluated under field conditions in replicated trials in 2015 and 2016. In both years, a single QTL spanning the Pm58 locus was identified that reduced powdery mildew severity and explained 21% of field variation (P value?<?0.01). KASP? assays were developed from closely linked GBS-SNP markers, a refined genetic map was developed, and four markers that cosegregate with Pm58 were identified. This novel source of powdery mildew-resistance and closely linked genetic markers will support efforts to develop wheat varieties with powdery mildew resistance.

     

Ectomycorrhizae of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tuber huidongense</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">T. liyuanum</Emphasis> with <Emphasis Type="Italic">Castanea mollissima</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus armandii</Emphasis>

Tuber huidongense and T. liyuanum are common commercial white truffles in China that belong to the Rufum and Puberulum groups of the genus Tuber, respectively. Their mycorrhizae were successfully synthesized with two native trees—Castanea mollissima and Pinus armandii—under greenhouse conditions. The identities of the mycorrhizae were confirmed through internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence analyses, and their morphological characteristics were described. All of the obtained mycorrhizae have an interlocking pseudoparenchymatous mantle, which is a typical feature of truffle mycorrhizae. The mycorrhizae of T. huidongense on the two trees have hyaline branched emanating hyphae, similar to the documented mycorrhizae of the Rufum group. The unramified, spiky, and hyaline cystidia on the mycorrhizae of T. liyuanum with both C. mollissima and P. armandii further confirmed that this characteristic is constant for the mycorrhizae of the Puberulum group. The successful mycorrhizal syntheses on the two nut-producing trees will be of economic importance in the cultivation of the two truffles.     

Over-expressing a UDP-glucosyltransferase gene (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ta-UGT</Emphasis><Subscript><Emphasis Type="Italic">3</Emphasis></Subscript>) enhances <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> Head Blight resistance of wheat

Wheat Fusarium Head Blight (FHB), mainly caused by Fusarium graminearum (F.g), is a destructive fungal disease worldwide. FHB can not only cause considerable reduction in yield, but more seriously, can contaminate grain by trichothecene toxins released by the fungus. Here, we report new insights into the function and underlying mechanisms of a UDP-glycosyltransferase gene, Ta-UGT ₃ , that is involved in FHB resistance in wheat. In our previous study, Ta-UGT ₃ was found to enhance host tolerance against deoxynivalenol (DON) in Arabidopsis. In this study, four transgenic lines over-expressing Ta-UGT ₃ in a FHB highly susceptible wheat variety, Alondra’s, were obtained and characterized. 3 years of assays using single floret inoculation with F.g indicated that all four transgenic lines exhibited significantly enhanced type II resistance to FHB and less DON accumulation in the grains compared to the untransformed control. Histological observation using GFP labelled F.g was in agreement with the above test results since over-expression of Ta-UGT ₃ dramatically inhibited expansion of F.g. To explore the putative mechanism of resistance mediated by Ta-UGT ₃ , microarray analysis, qRT-PCR and hormone measurements were performed. Microarray analysis showed that DON up-regulated genes, such as TaNPR1, in the susceptible control, and down-regulated genes in F.g inoculated transgenic lines, while qRT-PCR showed that some defence related genes were up-regulated in F.g inoculated transgenic lines. Ta-UGT ₃ over-expression also changed the contents of the endogenous hormones SA and JA in the spikes. These data suggest that Ta-UGT ₃ positively regulates the defence responses to F.g, perhaps by regulating defence-related and DON-induced downstream genes.     

The <Emphasis Type="Italic">Adh</Emphasis> locus and adaptation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">cn</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">vg</Emphasis> mutants in experimental populations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Drosophila melanogaster MEIG</Emphasis>

A complex study on the adaptation of cn and vn mutants and the allozymes of alcoholdehydrogenase (ADH) was carried out in initially pure lines, and their panmixia populations during exchange of the mutant genotype with that of wild-type flies (C-S) and D) through saturating crossings. The relative adaptation of the genotypes was estimated by their effect on reproductive efficiency in the experimentally obtained population. Fecundity, lifespan, and the resistance of the studied genotypes to hyperthermia were investigated individually. It was shown that the high level of adaptation of the cn mutants and the low level of adaptation of the vg mutants was correlated with the presence of different ADH allozymes. In the studied population, the F-allozyme of ADH accompanied the vg mutation, while the S-allozyme of the enzyme was detected in cn mutants. Saturating crossings of C-S(Adh ^S)×vg(Adh ^F) and D(Adh ^F) × cn(Adh ^S), along with the parallel determination of the allele composition of the Adh locus, demonstrated that the complete substitution of the F-allozyme of ADH in the vg mutants by the S-allozyme in D flies, as well as the substitution of the S-allozyme of ADH in the cn mutants by the F-allozyme in D flies was realized only after the 15th–20th backcrosses. These results favor the coadaptation of cn and vg marker genes with alleles of the Adh locus and indicate the important role of the latter in the adaptation of genotypes. In the studied population, selection acted primarily against the vg mutants, which were inferior to the cn mutants, and heterozygote genotypes in indices of the main adaptation components.