Coiled‐coil interactions are required for post‐Golgi R‐SNARE trafficking

The sorting of post‐Golgi R‐SNAREs (vesicle‐associated membrane protein (VAMP)1, 2, 3, 4, 7 and 8) is still poorly understood. To address this, we developed a system to investigate their localization, trafficking and cell‐surface levels. Here, we show that the distribution and internalization of VAMPs 3 and 8 are determined solely through a new conserved mechanism that uses coiled‐coil interactions, and that VAMP4 does not require these interactions for its trafficking. We propose that VAMPs 3 and 8 are trafficked while in a complex with Q‐SNAREs. We also show that the dileucine motif of VAMP4 is required for both its internalization and retrieval to the trans‐Golgi network. However, when the dileucine motif is mutated, the construct can still be internalized potentially through coiled‐coil interactions with Q‐SNAREs.     

Lectin BS‐I inhibits cell migration and invasion via AKT/GSK‐3β/β‐catenin pathway in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is most common malignant cancer worldwide; however, the mortality rate of HCC remains high due to the invasion and metastasis of HCC. Thus, exploring novel treatments to prevent the invasion of HCC is needed for improving clinical outcome of this fatal disease. In this study, we identified lectin from Bandeiraea simplicifolia seeds (BS‐I) binds to metastasis‐associated HCC cell surface glycans by a lectin microarray and inhibits HCC cell migration and invasion through downregulating the matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2), matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9) and urokinase‐type plasminogen activator (uPA) production. These effects of BS‐I were mediated by inhibiting the activation of AKT/GSK‐3β/β‐catenin pathway and depended on specificity of lectin BS‐I binding to GalNAc. GSK3β inhibitors rescued BS‐I‐mediated inhibition of migration and invasion of HCC cell. Further, we identified that lectin BS‐I interacts with sGrp78, affects membrane localization of sGrp78 and attenuates the binding of sGrp78 and p85 to inhibit the activation of AKT/GSK‐3β/β‐catenin pathway. Overexpression of Grp78 or P85 rescues BS‐I‐mediated inhibition of migration and invasion of HCC cell. These findings demonstrated for the first time that BS‐I can act as a novel potential drug to prevent the invasion of HCC.     

Characterization of VAMP‐2 in the lung: implication in lung surfactant secretion

Lung surfactant is crucial for reducing the surface tension of alveolar space, thus preventing the alveoli from collapse. Lung surfactant is synthesized in alveolar epithelial type II cells and stored in lamellar bodies before being released via the fusion of lamellar bodies with the apical plasma membrane. SNAREs (soluble N‐ethylmaleimide‐sensitive fusion protein‐attachment protein receptors) play an essential role in membrane fusion. We have previously demonstrated the requirement of t‐SNARE (target SNARE) proteins, syntaxin 2 and SNAP‐23 (N‐ethylmaleimide‐sensitive factor‐attachment protein 23), in regulated surfactant secretion. Here, we characterized the distribution of VAMPs (vesicle‐associated membrane proteins) in rat lung and alveolar type II cells. VAMP‐2, ?3 and ?8 are shown in type II cells at both mRNA and protein levels. VAMP‐2 and ?8 were enriched in LB (lamellar body) fraction. Immunochemistry studies indicated that VAMP‐2 was co‐localized with the LB marker protein, LB‐180. Functionally, the cytoplasmic domain of VAMP‐2, but not VAMP‐8 inhibited surfactant secretion in type II cells. We suggest that VAMP‐2 is the v‐SNARE (vesicle SNARE) involved in regulated surfactant secretion.     

MT1‐MMP modulates melanoma cell dissemination and metastasis through activation of MMP2 and RAC1

Metastatic melanoma remains the deadliest of all skin cancers with a survival rate at five years of less than 15%. MT1‐MMP is a membrane‐associated matrix metalloproteinase that controls pericellular proteolysis and is an important, invasion‐promoting, pro‐tumorigenic MMP in cancer. We show that deregulation of MT1‐MMP expression happens as early as the transition from nevus to primary melanoma and continues to increase during melanoma progression. Furthermore, MT1‐MMP expression is associated with poor melanoma patient outcome, underscoring a pivotal role of MT1‐MMP in melanoma pathogenesis. We demonstrate that MT1‐MMP is directly required for melanoma cells to metastasize, as cells deprived of MT1‐MMP fail to form distant metastasis in an orthotopic mouse melanoma model. We show that MT1‐MMP affects cell invasion by activating its target MMP2. Importantly, we demonstrate, for the first time, that activation of MMP2 by MT1‐MMP is required to sustain RAC1 activity and promote MT1‐MMP‐dependent cell motility. These data highlight a novel MT1‐MMP/MMP2/RAC1 signaling axis in melanoma that may represent an intriguing molecular target for the treatment of invasive melanoma.     

S100A10‐Mediated Translocation of Annexin‐A2 to SNARE Proteins in Adrenergic Chromaffin Cells Undergoing Exocytosis

In neuroendocrine cells, annexin‐A2 is implicated as a promoter of monosialotetrahexosylganglioside (GM1)‐containing lipid microdomains that are required for calcium‐regulated exocytosis. As soluble N‐ethylmaleimide‐sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs) require a specific lipid environment to mediate granule docking and fusion, we investigated whether annexin‐A2‐induced lipid microdomains might be linked to the SNAREs present at the plasma membrane. Stimulation of adrenergic chromaffin cells induces the translocation of cytosolic annexin‐A2 to the plasma membrane, where it colocalizes with SNAP‐25 and S100A10. Cross‐linking experiments performed in stimulated chromaffin cells indicate that annexin‐A2 directly interacts with S100A10 to form a tetramer at the plasma membrane. Here, we demonstrate that S100A10 can interact with vesicle‐associated membrane protein 2 (VAMP2) and show that VAMP2 is present at the plasma membrane in resting adrenergic chromaffin cells. Tetanus toxin that cleaves VAMP2 solubilizes S100A10 from the plasma membrane and inhibits the translocation of annexin‐A2 to the plasma membrane. Immunogold labelling of plasma membrane sheets combined with spatial point pattern analysis confirmed that S100A10 is present in VAMP2 microdomains at the plasma membrane and that annexin‐A2 is observed close to S100A10 and to syntaxin in stimulated chromaffin cells. In addition, these results showed that the formation of phosphatidylinositol (4,5)‐bisphosphate (PIP₂) microdomains colocalized with S100A10 in the vicinity of docked granules, suggesting a functional interplay between annexin‐A2‐mediated lipid microdomains and SNAREs during exocytosis.     

Cell surface activation of progelatinase A （proMMP—2） and cell migration

Gelatinase A (MMP-2) is considered to play a critical role in cell migration and invasion.The proteinase is cerceted from the cell as an inactive zymogen.In vivo it is postulated that activation of progelationase A (proMMP-2) takes place on the cell surface mediated by membrane-type matrix metalloproteinases (MT-MMPs).Recent studies have demonstrated that proMMP-2 is recruited to the cell surface by interacting with tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2 (TIMP-2) bound to MT1-MMP by forming a ternary complex.Free MT1-MMP closely located to the ternary complex then activates proMMP-2 on the cell surface.MT1-MMP is found in cultured invasive cancer cells at the invadopodia.The MT-MMP/TIMP-2/MMP-2 system thus provides localized expression of proteolysis of the extracellular matrix required for cell migration.     

Role of Varp,a Rab21 exchange factor and TI‐VAMP/VAMP7 partner,in neurite growth

The vesicular soluble N‐ethylmaleimide‐sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) tetanus neurotoxin‐insensitive vesicle‐associated membrane protein (TI‐VAMP/VAMP7) was previously shown to mediate an exocytic pathway involved in neurite growth, but its regulation is still largely unknown. Here we show that TI‐VAMP interacts with the Vps9 domain and ankyrin‐repeat‐containing protein (Varp), a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) of the small GTPase Rab21, through a specific domain herein called the interacting domain (ID). Varp, TI‐VAMP and Rab21 co‐localize in the perinuclear region of differentiating hippocampal neurons and transiently in transport vesicles in the shaft of neurites. Silencing the expression of Varp by RNA interference or expressing ID or a form of Varp deprived of its Vps9 domain impairs neurite growth. Furthermore, the mutant form of Rab21, defective in GTP hydrolysis, enhances neurite growth. We conclude that Varp is a positive regulator of neurite growth through both its GEF activity and its interaction with TI‐VAMP.     

NHE1 mediates migration and invasion of HeLa cells via regulating the expression and localization of MT1‐MMP

Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger 1 (NHE1), acting as an important regulator of intracellular pH (pH_i) and extracellular pH (pH_e), has been known to play a key role in the metastasis of many solid tumours. However, the exact mechanism underlying these processes, especially in cervical cancer, is still poorly understood. In the current study, we first showed that the inhibition of NHE1 activity by the specific inhibitor cariporide could suppress migration and invasion of HeLa cells in vitro. Moreover, cariporide also reversed the enhanced migration and invasion in HeLa cells by overexpressed membrane‐type 1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1‐MMP). Subsequently, our results showed that NHE1 regulated the expression of MT1‐MMP at both messenger RNA and protein levels as well as its localization. Meanwhile, we observed slight modification in the morphology of HeLa cell after treating with cariporide. The present work indicates that NHE1 mediates HeLa cell metastasis via regulating the expression and localization of MT1‐MMP and provides a theoretical basis for the development of novel therapeutic strategies targeting cervical cancer. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Silencing of VAMP3 inhibits cell migration and integrin-mediated adhesion

Integrins are transmembrane receptors for cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix. In cell migration, integrins are endocytosed from the plasma membrane or the cell surface, transported in vesicles and exocytosed actively at the cell front. In the present study, we examined the roles of VAMP3, a SNARE protein that mediates exocytosis, in cell migration and integrin trafficking. Small interfering RNA (siRNA)-induced silencing of VAMP3 inhibited chemotactic cell migration by more than 60% without affecting cell proliferation. VAMP3 silencing reduced the levels of β1 integrin at the cell surface but had no effect on total cellular β1 integrin, indicating that VAMP3 is required for trafficking of β1 integrin to the plasma membrane. Furthermore, VAMP3 silencing diminished cell adhesion to laminin but not to fibronectin or collagen. Taken together, these data suggest that VAMP3-dependent integrin trafficking is crucial in cell migration and cell adhesion to laminin.     

Cardiotoxin III suppresses hepatocyte growth factor–stimulated migration and invasion of MDA‐MB‐231 cells

The hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)/c‐Met signalling pathway is deregulated in most cancers and associated with a poor prognosis in breast cancer. Cardiotoxin III (CTX III), a basic polypeptide isolated from Naja naja atra venom, has been shown to exhibit anticancer activity. In this study, we use HGF as an invasive inducer to investigate the effect of CTX III on MDA‐MB‐231 cells. When cells were treated with non‐toxic doses of CTX III, CTX III inhibited the HGF‐promoted cell migration and invasion. CTX III significantly suppressed the HGF‐induced c‐Met phosphorylation and downstream activation of phosphatidylinositol 3‐kinase (PI3k)/Akt and extracellular signal‐regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2. Additionally, CTX III similar to wortmannin (a PI3K inhibitor) and U0126 (an upstream kinase regulating ERK1/2 inhibitor) attenuated cell migration and invasion induced by HGF. This effect was paralleled by a significant reduction in phosphorylation of IκBα kinase and IκBα and nuclear translocation of nuclear factor κB (NF‐κB) as well as a reduction of matrix metalloproteinase‐9 (MMP‐9) activity. Furthermore, the c‐Met inhibitor PHA665752 inhibited HGF‐induced MMP‐9 expression, cell migration and invasion, as well as the activation of ERK1/2 and PI3K/Akt, suggesting that ERK1/2 and PI3K/Akt activation occurs downstream of c‐Met activation. Taken together, these findings suggest that CTX III inhibits the HGF‐induced invasion and migration of MDA‐MB‐231 cells via HGF/c‐Met‐dependent PI3K/Akt, ERK1/2 and NF‐κB signalling pathways, leading to the downregulation of MMP‐9 expression. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Soluble N‐ethylmaleimide‐sensitive factor attachment protein receptors required during Trypanosoma cruzi parasitophorous vacuole development

Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas disease, is an obligate intracellular parasite that exploits different host vesicular pathways to invade the target cells. Vesicular and target soluble N‐ethylmaleimide‐sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs) are key proteins of the intracellular membrane fusion machinery. During the early times of T. cruzi infection, several vesicles are attracted to the parasite contact sites in the plasma membrane. Fusion of these vesicles promotes the formation of the parasitic vacuole and parasite entry. In this work, we study the requirement and the nature of SNAREs involved in the fusion events that take place during T. cruzi infection. Our results show that inhibition of N‐ethylmaleimide‐sensitive factor protein, a protein required for SNARE complex disassembly, impairs T. cruzi infection. Both TI‐VAMP/VAMP7 and cellubrevin/VAMP3, two v‐SNAREs of the endocytic and exocytic pathways, are specifically recruited to the parasitophorous vacuole membrane in a synchronized manner but, although VAMP3 is acquired earlier than VAMP7, impairment of VAMP3 by tetanus neurotoxin fails to reduce T. cruzi infection. In contrast, reduction of VAMP7 activity by expression of VAMP7's longin domain, depletion by small interfering RNA or knockout, significantly decreases T. cruzi infection susceptibility as a result of a minor acquisition of lysosomal components to the parasitic vacuole. In addition, overexpression of the VAMP7 partner Vti1b increases the infection, whereas expression of a KIF5 kinesin mutant reduces VAMP7 recruitment to vacuole and, concomitantly, T. cruzi infection. Altogether, these data support a key role of TI‐VAMP/VAMP7 in the fusion events that culminate in the T. cruzi parasitophorous vacuole development.     

Sorting of the v-SNARE VAMP7 in Dictyostelium discoideum: a role for more than one Adaptor Protein (AP) complex

Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive-factor Attachment protein Receptors (SNAREs) participate in the specificity of membrane fusions in the cell. The mechanisms of specific SNARE sorting are still however poorly documented. We investigated the possible role of Adaptor Protein (AP) complexes in sorting of the Dictyostelium discoideum v-SNARE VAMP7. In live cells, GFP-VAMP7 is observed in the membrane of endocytic compartments. It is also observed in the plasma membrane of a small proportion of the cells. Mutation of a potential dileucine motif dramatically increases the proportion of cells with GFP-VAMP7 in their plasma membrane, strongly supporting the participation of an AP complex in VAMP7 sorting to the endocytic pathway. A partial increase occurs in knockout cells for the medium subunits of AP-2 and AP-3 complexes, indicating a role for both AP-2 and AP-3. VAMP7, as well as its t-SNAREs partners syntaxin 8 and Vti1, are co-immunoprecipitated with each of the medium subunits of the AP-1, AP-2, AP-3 and AP-4 complexes. This result supports the conclusion that VAMP7 directly interacts with both AP-2 and AP-3. It also raises the hypothesis of an interaction with AP-1 and AP-4. GFP-VAMP7 is retrieved from the endocytic pathway at and/or before the late post-lysosomal stage through an AP-independent mechanism.     

A Targeted siRNA Screen to Identify SNAREs Required for Constitutive Secretion in Mammalian Cells

The role of SNAREs in mammalian constitutive secretion remains poorly defined. To address this, we have developed a novel flow cytometry‐based assay for measuring constitutive secretion and have performed a targeted SNARE and Sec1/Munc18 (SM) protein‐specific siRNA screen (38 SNAREs, 4 SNARE‐like proteins and 7 SM proteins). We have identified the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)/Golgi SNAREs syntaxin 5, syntaxin 17, syntaxin 18, GS27, SLT1, Sec20, Sec22b, Ykt6 and the SM protein Sly1, along with the post‐Golgi SNAREs SNAP‐29 and syntaxin 19, as being required for constitutive secretion. Depletion of SNAP‐29 or syntaxin 19 causes a decrease in the number of fusion events at the cell surface and in SNAP‐29‐depleted cells causes an increase in the number of docked vesicles at the plasma membrane as determined by total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy. Analysis of syntaxin 19‐interacting partners by mass spectrometry indicates that syntaxin 19 can form SNARE complexes with SNAP‐23, SNAP‐25, SNAP‐29, VAMP3 and VAMP8, supporting its role in Golgi to plasma membrane transport or fusion. Surprisingly, we have failed to detect any requirement for a post‐Golgi‐specific R‐SNARE in this process.     

Starvation‐induced MTMR13 and RAB21 activity regulates VAMP8 to promote autophagosome–lysosome fusion

Autophagy, the process for recycling cytoplasm in the lysosome, depends on membrane trafficking. We previously identified Drosophila Sbf as a Rab21 guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) that acts with Rab21 in endosomal trafficking. Here, we show that Sbf/MTMR13 and Rab21 have conserved functions required for starvation‐induced autophagy. Depletion of Sbf/MTMR13 or Rab21 blocked endolysosomal trafficking of VAMP8, a SNARE required for autophagosome–lysosome fusion. We show that starvation induces Sbf/MTMR13 GEF and RAB21 activity, as well as their induced binding to VAMP8 (or closest Drosophila homolog, Vamp7). MTMR13 is required for RAB21 activation, VAMP8 interaction and VAMP8 endolysosomal trafficking, defining a novel GEF‐Rab‐effector pathway. These results identify starvation‐responsive endosomal regulators and trafficking that tunes membrane demands with changing autophagy status.     

SNAP23, Syntaxin4, and vesicle-associated membrane protein 7 (VAMP7) mediate trafficking of membrane type 1–matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP) during invadopodium formation and tumor cell invasion

Movement through the extracellular matrix (ECM) requires cells to degrade ECM components, primarily through the action of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). Membrane type 1–matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP) has an essential role in matrix degradation and cell invasion and localizes to subcellular degradative structures termed invadopodia. Trafficking of MT1-MMP to invadopodia is required for the function of these structures, and here we examine the role of N-ethylmaleimide–sensitive factor–activating protein receptor (SNARE)–mediated membrane traffic in the transport of MT1-MMP to invadopodia. During invadopodium formation in MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells, increased association of SNAP23, Syntaxin4, and vesicle-associated membrane protein 7 (VAMP7) is detected by coimmunoprecipitation. Blocking the function of these SNAREs perturbs invadopodium-based ECM degradation and cell invasion. Increased level of SNAP23-Syntaxin4-VAMP7 interaction correlates with decreased Syntaxin4 phosphorylation. These results reveal an important role for SNARE-regulated trafficking of MT1-MMP to invadopodia during cellular invasion of ECM.     

ATP is released from autophagic vesicles to the extracellular space in a VAMP7-dependent manner

Autophagy is a normal degradative pathway that involves the sequestration of cytoplasmic components and organelles in a vacuole called autophagosome. SNAREs proteins are key molecules of the vesicle fusion machinery. Our results indicate that in a mammalian tumor cell line a subset of VAMP7 (V-SNARE)-positive vacuoles colocalize with LC3 at the cell periphery (focal adhesions) upon starvation. The re-distribution of VAMP7 positive structures is a microtubule-dependent event, with the participation of the motor protein KIF5 and the RAB7 effector RILP. Interestingly, most of the VAMP7-labeled vesicles were loaded with ATP. Moreover, in cells subjected to starvation, these structures fuse with the plasma membrane to release the nucleotide to the extracellular medium. Summarizing, our results show the molecular components involved in the release of ATP to extracellular space, which is recognized as an important autocrine/paracrine signal molecule that participates in the regulation of several cellular functions such as immunogenicity of cancer cell death or inflammation     

ATP is released from autophagic vesicles to the extracellular space in a VAMP7-dependent manner

Autophagy is a normal degradative pathway that involves the sequestration of cytoplasmic components and organelles in a vacuole called autophagosome. SNAREs proteins are key molecules of the vesicle fusion machinery. Our results indicate that in a mammalian tumor cell line a subset of VAMP7 (V-SNARE)-positive vacuoles colocalize with LC3 at the cell periphery (focal adhesions) upon starvation. The re-distribution of VAMP7 positive structures is a microtubule-dependent event, with the participation of the motor protein KIF5 and the RAB7 effector RILP. Interestingly, most of the VAMP7-labeled vesicles were loaded with ATP. Moreover, in cells subjected to starvation, these structures fuse with the plasma membrane to release the nucleotide to the extracellular medium. Summarizing, our results show the molecular components involved in the release of ATP to extracellular space, which is recognized as an important autocrine/paracrine signal molecule that participates in the regulation of several cellular functions such as immunogenicity of cancer cell death or inflammation     

Osteopontin increases migration and MMP‐9 up‐regulation via αvβ3 integrin,FAK, ERK,and NF‐κB‐dependent pathway in human chondrosarcoma cells

Tumor malignancy is associated with several features such as proliferation ability and frequency of metastasis. Osteopontin (OPN), which abundantly expressed in bone matrix, is involved in cell adhesion, migration, invasion and proliferation via interaction with its receptor, that is, αvβ3 integrin. However, the effect of OPN on migration activity in human chondrosarcoma cells is mostly unknown. Here we found that OPN increased the migration and expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)‐9 in human chondrosarcoma cells (JJ012 cells). RGD peptide, αvβ3 monoclonal antibody and MAPK kinase (MEK) inhibitors (PD98059 and U0126) but not RAD peptide inhibited the OPN‐induced increase of the migration and MMP‐9 up‐regulation of chondrosarcoma cells. OPN stimulation increased the phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK), MEK and extracellular signal‐regulated kinase (ERK). In addition, treatment of JJ012 cells with NF‐κB inhibitor (PDTC) or IκB protease inhibitor (TPCK) inhibited OPN‐induced cell migration and MMP‐9 up‐regulation. Stimulation of JJ012 cells with OPN also induced IκB kinase α/β (IKK α/β) phosphorylation, IκBα phosphorylation, p65 Ser⁵³⁶ phosphorylation, and κB‐luciferase activity. The OPN‐mediated increases in MMP‐9 and κB‐luciferase activities were inhibited by RGD peptide, PD98059 or FAK and ERK2 mutant. Taken together, our results indicated that OPN enhances the migration of chondrosarcoma cells by increasing MMP‐9 expression through the αvβ3 integrin, FAK, MEK, ERK and NF‐κB signal transduction pathway. J. Cell. Physiol. 221: 98–108, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc