The effect of alternative prey on the dynamics of imperfect Batesian and Müllerian mimicries

Both Batesian and Müllerian mimicries are considered classical evidence of natural selection where predation pressure has, at times, created a striking similarity between unrelated prey species. Batesian mimicry, in which palatable mimics resemble unpalatable aposematic species, is parasitic and only beneficial to the mimics. By contrast, in classical Müllerian mimicry the cost of predators' avoidance learning is shared between similar unpalatable co-mimics, and therefore mimicry benefits all parties. Recent studies using mathematical modeling have questioned the dynamics of Müllerian mimicry, suggesting that fitness benefits should be calculated in a way similar to Batesian mimicry; that is, according to the relative unpalatability difference between co-mimics. Batesian mimicry is very sensitive to the availability of alternative prey, but the effects of alternative prey for Müllerian dynamics are not known and experiments are rare. We designed two experiments to test the effect of alternative prey on imperfect Batesian and Müllerian mimicry complexes. When alternative prey were scarce, imperfect Batesian mimics were selected out from the population, but abundantly available alternative prey relaxed selection against imperfect mimics. Birds learned to avoid both Müllerian models and mimics irrespective of the availability of alternative prey. However, the rate of avoidance learning of models increased when alternative prey were abundant. This experiment suggests that the availability of alternative prey affects the dynamics of both Müllerian and Batesian mimicry, but in different ways.     

Interactions between, Camellia japonica and its Seed Predator Curculio camelliae

Abstract Seeds of Camellia japonica are heavily attacked by Curculio camelliae. To evaluate the efficacy of fruit wall thickness against the curculio attack, correlations of fruit wall thickness with the ratio of seed survival (RSS) and with the ratio of oviposition success of the curculio beetles (ROS) were investigated on fruits collected at Camellia stands in Kinki District. While ROS exhibited negative correlations with the thickness of fruit wall in every stand, RSS showed different modes in accordance with the population density of the curculio. At low density, no significant difference was seen in RSS between trees with thicker fruit wall and those with thinner ones; the latter trees, generally bearing many fruits, had more seeds surviving than the former, generally bearing a few fruits. In high density curculio populations, RSS values showed correlation with the thickness of the fruit wall and more seeds survived in trees with thicker fruit walls. These facts suggest that two contrasting behavioral traits are present in a single species C. japonica and their efficacies differ in accordance with the curculio density.     

Evidence of a geographically variable competitive mimicry relationship in coral reef fishes

In Kimbe Bay, Papua New Guinea, juvenile surgeonfish Acanthurus pyroferus have been shown to gain access to food resources defended by the damselfish Plectroglyphidodon lacrymatus by mimicking a pygmy angelfish, Centropyge vrolikii , that does not compete with the damsel for food. I tested whether A. pyroferus juveniles gain the same competitive advantage from mimicking a different pygmy angelfish, Centropyge flavissima , in Moorea, French Polynesia. Through abundance and substrate surveys, behavioral observations and stomach content analyses, I demonstrate that in Moorea, mimicry of Ce. flavissima does not provide A. pyroferus with access to damselfish Stegastes nigricans territories; Ce. flavissima models are always attacked upon territory entry and A. pyroferus mimics avoid damsel territories. Damselfish aggression toward the model angelfish cannot be attributed to overabundance of the deceptive mimic; instead, aggression can best be explained by the fact that Ce. flavissima competes with damsels in Moorea by consuming their algal turfs, making them inappropriate models for competitive mimics. Juveniles of many Indo-Pacific surgeonfishes appear to mimic pygmy angelfishes; I suggest that these mimics' success in gaining access to damselfish territories is geographically variable and may be determined by the extent to which mimics, models and receivers overlap in resource use at a given site. This mimicry complex may thus present an excellent illustration of the geographic mosaic model of coevolution.     

Artificial neural networks and the study of evolution of prey coloration

In this paper, I investigate the use of artificial neural networks in the study of prey coloration. I briefly review the anti-predator functions of prey coloration and describe both in general terms and with help of two studies as specific examples the use of neural network models in the research on prey coloration. The first example investigates the effect of visual complexity of background on evolution of camouflage. The second example deals with the evolutionary choice of defence strategy, crypsis or aposematism. I conclude that visual information processing by predators is central in evolution of prey coloration. Therefore, the capability to process patterns as well as to imitate aspects of predator's information processing and responses to visual information makes neural networks a well-suited modelling approach for the study of prey coloration. In addition, their suitability for evolutionary simulations is an advantage when complex or dynamic interactions are modelled. Since not all behaviours of neural network models are necessarily biologically relevant, it is important to validate a neural network model with empirical data. Bringing together knowledge about neural networks with knowledge about topics of prey coloration would provide a potential way to deepen our understanding of the specific appearances of prey coloration.     

The evolutionary stability of automimicry

Internal defences such as toxins cannot be detected from a distance by a predator, and are likely to be costly to produce and maintain. Populations of well-defended prey may therefore be vulnerable to invasion from rare 'cheater' mutants that do not produce the toxin themselves but obtain some protection from their resemblance to their better defended conspecifics (automimicry). Although it is well established that well-defended and weakly defended morphs may coexist stably in protected dimorphisms, recent theoretical work suggests that such dimorphisms would not be resistant to invasion by novel mutants with defence levels intermediate to those present. Given that most defences (including toxins) are likely to be continuous traits, this implies that automimicry may tend to be a transitory phenomenon, and thus less likely to explain variation in defence levels in nature. In contrast to this, we show that automimicry can also be evolutionarily stable for continuous traits, and that it may evolve under a wide range of conditions. A recently developed geometric method allows us to determine directly from a trade-off curve whether an evolutionarily stable defence dimorphism is at all possible, and to make some qualitative inferences about the ecological conditions that may favour it.     

Do life-history variables of European cuckoo hosts explain their egg-rejection behavior?

Recently, Brooker and Brooker suggested an equilibrium in thelevel of host defense and parasite counter-defense despite thepassage of sufficient time for the evolution of host defensesthrough coevolution between brood parasites and their hosts.A long coevolutionary history of brood parasitism and nest predationhas favored an adjustment of the host's life-history patternto the point where total acceptance of a cuckoo egg is now anevolutionarily stable strategy. In a comparative study basedon host species as independent observations, some predictionswere tested for the European cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) and Horsfield'sbronze cuckoo (Chrysococcyx basalis). In this article I reanalyzethe predictions made by Brooker and Brooker using informationon the European cuckoo and its hosts in the British Isles whilecontrolling for common phylogenetic descent. Only 1 of the 12 predictionsof Brooker and Brooker was supported using the new analyses,and none of the life-history variables was related to rejectionbehavior of the hosts of the European cuckoo, implying weaksupport for the hypothesis. Therefore, we conclude that whenanalyzing life-history variables that have a phylogenetic component,the use of modern comparative analyses is essential.     

Effectiveness of the caudal spine as a defense mechanism in Keratella cochlearis

The temporal distribution of spined and unspined forms of Keratella cochlearis in Cubillas reservoir during an annual cycle, and the stomach contents of Asplanchna girodi, were studied. The results suggest that the length of the caudal spine plays a critical role in the defense against predation by Asplanchna girodi. Short-spined forms showed a higher susceptibility to predation than unspined forms, which may have important consequencies for spine length variation in Keratella cochlearis populations.     

植食性哺乳动物与植物协同进化研究进展

从动物-植物协同进化模式,植物对动物采食反应及动物对植物防卫的适应对策等方面综述了以植物次生化合物为媒介的植食性哺乳动物-植物协同进化的研究进展,动物与植物的协同进化模式包括成对协同进化,扩散协同进化,躲避-辐射协同进化,多样性的协同进化,平行分枝进化,互惠进化等模式,植物不仅以超补偿反应,物理防卫作为对植食性动物采食的应答,延长植食性动物的觅食时间,降低植食性动物的觅食效率,更能以其派生的次生化合物抑制动物的摄食,进而影响其消化,代谢及生长等生理生态特征,动物通过改变觅食行为,调整对各食物项目的相对摄入量,减少次生化合物的摄入量,动物还通过氧化,还原,络合,改变消化道内环境,形成相应的降解酶,改变代谢率等途径降低次生化合物对其的负作用。     

Evolution of exploitation ecosystems I. Predation,foraging ecology and population dynamics in herbivores

Summary The hypothesis of exploitation ecosystems was reanalysed using the model of Armstrong (1979) which simultaneously deals with population dynamics and evolution. The results indicate that the prediction of Oksanenet al. (1981) of strict predation limitation of herbivores in productive ecosystems does not hold for coevolved systems. Depending on the nature of herbivore-carnivore coevolution, herbivore biomass may level off at a threshold productivity value or increase monotonously with increasing primary productivity, though at a strongly reduced rate in productive ecosystems. Under both circumstances, increasing primary productivity is predicted to be accompanied by gradual replacement of genuine folivores by semi-granivores and true granivores. The dominating guild members are predicted to show some degree of resource-limitation, although only granivores are predicted to be chiefly resource-limited even in the most productive ecosystems. Data on arctic-to-temperate patterns in the community structure of herbivorous vertebrates conform to the implications of the analysis.     

Interpopulation variation in predator foraging behaviour promotes the evolutionary divergence of prey

Despite intensive investigation of the role of predation on evolutionary processes, few studies have questioned the possibility of the evolutionary divergence of prey populations in response to interpopulation variation in predator foraging behaviour. In an interaction between a seed-predatory insect, the camellia weevil (Curculio camelliae), and its host plant, the Japanese camellia (Camellia japonica), I tested whether the evolutionary differentiation of the plant's defensive trait, pericarp thickness, was related to the interpopulation variation in the foraging behaviour of female weevils. I found that the preference of weevils for the plant fruit based on pericarp thickness varied across 13 populations in Japan. Importantly, variation in weevil behaviour explained interpopulation variation in pericarp thickness and the direction/strength of natural selection on the trait. Overall, I show that adaptive foraging of predators can result in the evolutionary divergence of predator-prey interactions.