四氢紫堇萨明对Aβ_(25-35)诱导AD细胞模型凋亡的影响及其机制研究

探讨四氢紫堇萨明(SQZJSM)对阿尔茨海默病(AD)细胞模型凋亡的影响及作用机制。采用Aβ_(25-35)诱导神经细胞PC-12损伤建立AD细胞模型,通过流式细胞仪检测凋亡率,高通量高内涵分析系统观察细胞核形态并检测线粒体膜电位(MMP)变化,Western blot法检测凋亡相关蛋白的表达。结果显示,SQZJSM可改善模型细胞受损的细胞核形态,同时显著减少模型细胞凋亡率和胞质Cyt C含量,上调MMP,降低Bax、Cleaved-Caspase 3、Cleaved-Caspase 9蛋白表达,增加Bcl-2、p-Akt/T-Akt表达(P 0. 05); PI3K/AKT抑制剂LY294002可阻断SQZJSM对模型细胞的上述改善作用。以上结果表明四氢紫堇萨明可显著改善Aβ_(25-35)诱导的AD细胞模型凋亡,其机制可能与激活PI3K/Akt信号通路调控内源性线粒体凋亡途径相关。     

抑制褪黑素生物合成对大鼠Tau蛋白磷酸化的影响

目的 研究抑制褪黑素的生物合成对大鼠海马Tau蛋白磷酸化的影响。方法 侧脑室注射氟哌啶醇并腹腔注射加强,利用免疫组化检测大鼠海马区域Tau蛋白磷酸化情况;HPLC检测血清中褪黑素水平。结果 模型组大鼠海马Tau蛋白在Ser199/Ser202和Ser396/Ser404位点均发生异常过度磷酸化,褪黑素治疗组较模型组的磷酸化程度轻。结论 褪黑素水平的降低可能与AD样Tau蛋白异常过度磷酸化相关,外源性补充褪黑素可以减轻Tau蛋白的异常过度磷酸化。     

罗格列酮对AD样小鼠学习记忆减退的影响及机制

研究了罗格列酮对链脲佐菌素(streptozotocin, STZ)脑室内注射的阿尔茨海默病(AD)模型小鼠学习记忆减退的影响及机制．在小鼠脑室内注射STZ建立AD模型,治疗组小鼠采用罗格列酮灌胃给药30天．Morris水迷宫实验检测小鼠学习记忆能力,免疫印迹和免疫荧光检测Tau蛋白的磷酸化、神经丝(NFs)蛋白的磷酸化及糖基化、JNK和ERK蛋白的表达,微管结合实验检测Tau蛋白与微管的组装功能,荧光染料Fluoro-Jade B检测小鼠脑内退变神经元．结果显示,相比对照组,模型组小鼠平均逃避潜伏期和路径长度明显增加、穿越隐匿平台次数明显减少、Tau和NFs蛋白表达过度磷酸化、NFs蛋白糖基化减弱,而用罗格列酮干预的小鼠学习记忆改善并且Tau和NFs蛋白的磷酸化水平降低、NFs蛋白糖基化水平增加,Tau蛋白与微管结合能力改善,模型组JNK的磷酸化高于对照组和治疗组、模型组ERK1的磷酸化低于对照组和治疗组、各组在ERK2磷酸化无明显差异,模型组小鼠脑中FJB标记的退化神经元明显多于对照组和治疗组．结果说明,罗格列酮能改善STZ脑室内注射引起的小鼠学习记忆减退,其机制可能与改善胰岛素信号通路、降低Tau和NFs蛋白的过度磷酸化、减少神经退行性变有关．     

综述:Tau蛋白过度磷酸化机制及其在阿尔茨海默病神经元变性中的作用

Tau蛋白是神经元中含量最高的微管相关蛋白,其经典生物学功能是促进微管组装和维持微管的稳定性．在阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer's disease,AD)患者,异常过度磷酸化的Tau蛋白以配对螺旋丝结构形成神经原纤维缠结并在神经元内聚积．大量研究提示,Tau蛋白异常在AD患者神经变性和学习记忆障碍的发生发展中起重要作用．本课题组对Tau蛋白异常磷酸化的机制及其对细胞的影响进行了系列研究,发现Tau蛋白表达和磷酸化具有调节细胞生存命运的新功能,并由此对AD神经细胞变性的本质提出了新见解．本文主要综述作者实验室有关Tau蛋白的部分研究结果．     

臭椿酮诱导人黑色素瘤A375细胞凋亡及其机制研究

为研究臭椿酮(Ailanthone,AIL)诱导人黑色素瘤A375细胞凋亡的作用及作用机制,以人黑色素瘤A375细胞为研究对象,采用MTT法测定AIL对人黑色素瘤A375细胞生长增殖的抑制作用。用倒置相差显微镜观察AIL对A375细胞形态的影响,用荧光倒置显微镜观察Hoechst33258染色后AIL对A375细胞核的影响,用AnnexinV-FITC/PI双染法检测AIL诱导A375细胞凋亡的作用,用分光光度法检测caspase-3和caspase-9的活性,Westernblot检测p-PI3Kβ(Ser1070),PI3Kβ,p-Akt(Ser473)和Akt蛋白表达水平的变化,接着用PI3K抑制剂LY294002进行干预,进一步验证AIL对PI3K/Akt信号通路及细胞凋亡的影响。实验结果表明,AIL能够明显抑制A375细胞增殖,使A375细胞数目变少、附着力和透光性减弱,AIL能够诱导A375细胞凋亡,使其细胞核染色质发生固缩并呈现高亮,且使A375细胞早期及晚期凋亡率均增加,AIL作用后能够使caspase-3和caspase-9活性增加,AIL能够抑制PI3K和Akt蛋白磷酸化,从而使PI3K/Akt信号通路失活。较AIL单独作用,AIL和LY294002共同作用后对PI3K和Akt蛋白磷酸化的抑制作用增强且诱导凋亡作用增加,进一步说明AIL通过失活PI3K/Akt信号通路来诱导A375细胞凋亡。     

Wnt5a通过PI3K/Akt/GSK3β信号通路调控人卵巢癌SKOV3/VCR细胞对长春新碱的敏感性

本研究旨在探究Wnt5a对人卵巢癌SKOV3细胞长春新碱(vincristine, VCR)耐药性的影响,并探讨其分子机制。采用浓度梯度递增法构建耐药株SKOV3/VCR细胞,将人WNT5A基因的干扰质粒转染SKOV3/VCR细胞并筛选出稳定干扰Wnt5a的细胞株,用RT-PCR检测Wnt5a的mRNA表达水平,用CCK-8法检测细胞活力,用流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡,用Western blot法检测Wnt5a、MDR1、Survivin、β-catenin、Akt、p-Akt(S473)、GSK3β和p-GSK3β(Ser9)的蛋白表达水平。结果显示,SKOV3/VCR细胞中Wnt5a、MDR1、β-catenin和Survivin蛋白的表达水平、Akt和GSK3β蛋白的磷酸化水平以及Wnt5a mRNA表达水平均显著高于其亲代SKOV3细胞;WNT5A基因沉默使VCR抑制SKOV3/VCR细胞活力的IC50从38.412降至9.283 mg/L,提高SKOV3/VCR细胞凋亡率并协同增强VCR诱导的细胞凋亡(P 0.05),下调MDR1、β-catenin和Survivin蛋白的表达水平(P 0.05),抑制Akt和GSK3β蛋白磷酸化(P 0.05);此外,PI3K抑制剂LY294002也可下调SKOV3/VCR细胞中MDR1、β-catenin和Survivin蛋白表达水平,并降低Akt和GSK3β蛋白磷酸化水平(P 0.05)。以上结果提示,沉默WNT5A基因可在体外逆转人卵巢癌耐药株SKOV3/VCR细胞耐药性,作用机制可能与其抑制PI3K/Akt/GSK3β/β-catenin通路,继而下调MDR1和Survivin蛋白表达有关。     

Tau蛋白在阿尔兹海默病治疗中的研究进展

阿尔兹海默病中一个重要的病理特点是神经原纤维缠结(NFTs),其与Tau蛋白具有密切的关系。Tau蛋白是含量最高的微管相关蛋白。正常Tau蛋白可与微管蛋白结合促进其有效聚合形成微管。而过度磷酸化的Tau蛋白则会自我聚集,进而导致NFTs的形成。近年来,国内外就Tau为主要靶点治疗AD有了很大进展。本文就Tau蛋白在AD中的病理学意义,与Aβ蛋白的相互作用以及以Tau为主要切入点对AD进行治疗的方法作一综述。     

全反式维甲酸诱导胃腺癌细胞周期阻滞的作用机制

目的:研究全反式维甲酸(all trans retinoic acid,ATRA)对人胃腺癌细胞(SGC-7901)细胞周期阻滞的诱导作用并探讨其机制.方法:采用四甲基偶氮唑盐(MTT)方法检测ATRA对SGC-7901增殖的抑制;流式细胞术检测细胞周期,Western blot方法检测不同浓度ATRA处理后的SGC-7901细胞中Akt、P-Akt(Ser473)、P-Akt(Thr308)、p-GSK-3β(Ser9)和cyclin D1的表达情况.结果:10.9～10.5mol/L的ATRA作用SGC-7901细胞48 h,能显著抑制细胞增殖,其抑制率分别为10.2%±0.5%、15.3%±0.5%、17.0%±0.7%、28.4%±1.0%和36.9%±0.7%;G1期细胞比率随着ATRA浓度的增加而增加,呈明显的G1期阻滞;Western blot检测显示ATRA对细胞中Akt蛋白的表达没有明显影响,两种p-Akt蛋白的表达显著下调,ATRA显著降低细胞中cyclin D1和p-GSK-3β的表达.结论:ATRA可能通过抑制磷酸化Akt蛋白表达而减少p-GSK-3β的表达,从而减少cyclin D1的表达量,进而诱导SGC-7901细胞发生G1期阻滞.     

运动与阿尔茨海默病：基于Tau蛋白翻译后修饰视角的研究述评

阿尔茨海默病（Alzheimer’s disease,AD）是一种与年龄有关的神经退行性疾病,严重危害老年人的身心健康,给社会带来巨大的经济压力。但目前其发病机制尚不完全明确,临床仍无根治的有效方法。Tau蛋白是一种微管相关蛋白质,能够参与维持微管相关结构稳定,具有可溶性且不会聚集。在AD病理状态下,病人脑内Tau蛋白结构和功能异常。异常的Tau蛋白聚集成不可溶的神经纤维缠结,损害微管运输能力,导致病人认知功能障碍。Tau蛋白结构和功能的改变是由多种翻译后修饰过程来调控的,即将特定的化学修饰基团与Tau蛋白N-端或C-端结合,直接改变蛋白质的性质和功能。AD病人脑内Tau蛋白的磷酸化、糖基化、乙酰化及SUMO化等多种翻译后修饰异常,与Tau蛋白的降解和毒性物质的聚集密切相关。本文综述近年来的研究后发现,运动可以通过改善Tau蛋白翻译后的某些异常修饰来预防和改善AD,主要作用方式如下：(1）运动可通过抑制GSK 3β和MAPK等蛋白激酶活性来抑制Tau蛋白的过度磷酸化,可能通过上调PP2A活性来促进Tau蛋白去磷酸化;(2）运动可通过提高GLUT1和GLUT3蛋白质水平,可能通过调节OGA和OGT活性平衡,提高蛋白质O-GlcNAc糖基化水平;(3）运动可能通过AMPK/mTORC1途径抑制p300以及激活SIRT1,降低Tau蛋白乙酰化水平;同时运动还可能通过抑制HDAC6,改善Tau蛋白KXGS基序异常乙酰化程度;(4）运动可能通过调节磷酸化与SUMO化共定位点,改善Tau蛋白异常SUMO化水平。     

运动调节神经细胞自噬改善阿尔茨海默病

自噬作为细胞内的一种分解代谢途径,可将胞质中异常聚集的蛋白质、受损细胞器及其他细胞成分转运至溶酶体进行降解,以维持蛋白质稳态和细胞代谢平衡。研究表明,阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease, AD)脑内β淀粉样蛋白(amyloid-β, Aβ)沉积、Tau蛋白异常磷酸化和突触可塑性失调与细胞自噬紊乱有关。适宜的运动能够调节神经细胞自噬水平和抑制AD动物脑内的多种病变,但具体机制尚不明确。综述近期研究成果发现,运动可能通过以下途径保护大脑和改善AD:(1)运动可以激活AMP依赖的蛋白激酶(AMP-activated protein kinase, AMPK)和抑制哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mammalian target of rapamycin, mTOR)信号诱导自噬启动,提高自噬流和自噬溶酶体的降解,从而促进Aβ和磷酸化Tau蛋白的自噬清除。(2)运动增加脑内脑源性神经营养因子(brain-derived neurotrophic factor, BDNF)表达,经由BDNF/酪氨酸激酶受体B(tyrosine kinase receptor B, TrkB)信号,以及磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶(phosphatidylinositol-3-kinases, PI3K)/蛋白质丝氨酸苏氨酸激酶(protein-serine-threonine kinase, AKT)信号途径调节自噬流,从而介导BDNF诱导的突触可塑性。(3)运动可能通过调节神经细胞自噬,维持神经递质稳态和突触传递。     

Tauopathic changes in the striatum of A53T α-synuclein mutant mouse model of Parkinson's disease

Tauopathic pathways lead to degenerative changes in Alzheimer's disease and there is evidence that they are also involved in the neurodegenerative pathology of Parkinson's disease [PD]. We have examined tauopathic changes in striatum of the α-synuclein (α-Syn) A53T mutant mouse. Elevated levels of α-Syn were observed in striatum of the adult A53T α-Syn mice. This was accompanied by increases in hyperphosphorylated Tau [p-Tau], phosphorylated at Ser202, Ser262 and Ser396/404, which are the same toxic sites also seen in Alzheimer's disease. There was an increase in active p-GSK-3β, hyperphosphorylated at Tyr216, a major and primary kinase known to phosphorylate Tau at multiple sites. The sites of hyperphosphorylation of Tau in the A53T mutant mice were similar to those seen in post-mortem striata from PD patients, attesting to their pathophysiological relevance. Increases in p-Tau were not due to alterations on protein phosphatases in either A53T mice or in human PD, suggesting lack of involvement of these proteins in tauopathy. Extraction of striata with Triton X-100 showed large increases in oligomeric forms of α-Syn suggesting that α-Syn had formed aggregates the mutant mice. In addition, increased levels of p-GSK-3β and pSer396/404 were also found associated with aggregated α-Syn. Differential solubilization to measure protein binding to cytoskeletal proteins demonstrated that p-Tau in the A53T mutant mouse were unbound to cytoskeletal proteins, consistent with dissociation of p-Tau from the microtubules upon hyperphosphorylation. Interestingly, α-Syn remained tightly bound to the cytoskeleton, while p-GSK-3β was seen in the cytoskeleton-free fractions. Immunohistochemical studies showed that α-Syn, pSer396/404 Tau and p-GSK-3β co-localized with one another and was aggregated and accumulated into large inclusion bodies, leading to cell death of Substantia nigral neurons. Together, these data demonstrate an elevated state of tauopathy in striata of the A53T α-Syn mutant mice, suggesting that tauopathy is a common feature of synucleinopathies.     

Tanshinone IIA protects PC12 cells from β-amyloid<Subscript>25–35</Subscript>-induced apoptosis via PI3K/Akt signaling pathway

For the aging populations of any nation, Dementia is becoming a primary problem and Alzheimer’s dementia (AD) is the most common type. However, until now, there is no effective treatment for AD. Tanshinone IIA (Tan IIA) has been reported for neuroprotective potential to against amyloid β peptides (Aβ)-induced cytotoxicity in the rat pheochromocytoma cell line PC-12, which is widely used as AD research model, but the mechanism still remains unclear. To investigate the effect of Tan IIA and the possible molecular mechanism in the apoptosis of PC12 cells, we induced apoptosis in PC12 cells with β-amyloid(25-35), and treated cells with Tan IIA. After 24 h treatment, we found that Tan IIA increased the cell viability and reduced the number of apoptotic cells induced by Aβ(25-35). However, neuroprotection of Tan IIA was abolished by PI3K inhibitor LY294002. Meanwhile, Treatment with lithium chloride, a phosphorylation inhibitor of GSK3β, which is a downstream target of PI3K/Akt, can block Aβ(25-35)-induced cell apoptosis in a Tan IIA-like manner. Our findings suggest that Tan IIA is an effective neuroprotective agent and a viable candidate in AD therapy and PI3K/Akt activation and GSK3β phosphorylation are involved in the neuroprotection of Tan IIA.     

Class IA phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase in pancreatic β cells controls insulin secretion by multiple mechanisms

Type 2 diabetes is characterized by insulin resistance and pancreatic β cell dysfunction, the latter possibly caused by a defect in insulin signaling in β cells. Inhibition of class IA phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), using a mouse model lacking the pik3r1 gene specifically in β cells and the pik3r2 gene systemically (βDKO mouse), results in glucose intolerance and reduced insulin secretion in response to glucose. β cells of βDKO mice had defective exocytosis machinery due to decreased expression of soluble N-ethylmaleimide attachment protein receptor (SNARE) complex proteins and loss of cell-cell synchronization in terms of Ca(2+) influx. These defects were normalized by expression of a constitutively active form of Akt in the islets of βDKO mice, preserving insulin secretion in response to glucose. The class IA PI3K pathway in β cells in?vivo is important in the regulation of insulin secretion and may be a therapeutic target for type 2 diabetes.     

运动提高沉默信息调节因子2相关酶1改善阿尔兹海默症

阿尔兹海默症(Alzheimer's disease, AD)是一种神经退行性疾病,β-淀粉样蛋白(β-amyloid, Aβ)沉积和Tau蛋白过度磷酸化是其主要病理特征。沉默信息调节因子2相关酶1 (silent mating-type information regulation 2 homolog 1, SIRT1)具有去乙酰化作用,能够使多种类型组蛋白及非组蛋白脱乙酰化,在AD发病过程中占据重要地位。近年研究发现,运动能够激活SIRT1减缓AD进程,其机制可能是:抑制β-分泌酶活性、提高α-分泌酶活性,减少Aβ生成;减少过度磷酸化Tau蛋白集聚;与过氧化体增殖物激活型受体γ辅激活因子-1α(peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α,PGC-1α)相互作用以促进线粒体生物发生;上调同源性磷酸酶张力蛋白诱导激酶1(phosphatase and tensin homolog induced putative kinase1,PINK1)/Parkin信号通路改善线粒体自噬;去乙酰化核转录因子-κB(nuclear factor kappa B, NF-κB)以抑制神经炎症;提高海马中脑源性神经营养因子(brain-derived neurotrophic factor, BDNF)、神经胶质源性营养因子(glial cellline-derived neurotrophic factor,GDNF)等营养因子的蛋白质水平,以及抑制ApoE4基因进而增强神经元突触可塑性。本文总结了运动通过调控SIRT1改善AD的作用和机制,为预防及治疗AD提供新的思路。     

AD认知功能障碍的代谢紊乱机制:脑胰岛素抵抗及其介导的PI3K/Akt信号通路受损

阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease, AD)是一种以进行性痴呆为主要特征的中枢神经系统退行性疾病,其认知功能障碍可能与Ⅱ型糖尿病(type 2 diabetes, T2DM)诱发的胰岛素抵抗所损伤的PI3K/Akt胰岛素信号级联通路相关。胰岛素是调节机体新陈代谢的重要激素,通过与神经细胞表面的胰岛素受体结合激活PI3K/Akt信号通路,以调控葡萄糖、脂质的代谢。任何中间媒介功能紊乱所导致的脑胰岛素水平和胰岛素敏感性的降低都会损坏PI3K/Akt信号通路,诱发脑能量代谢障碍、Aβ沉积、Tau蛋白过度磷酸化,引起并加重AD认知功能障碍。因此,本文以PI3K/Akt胰岛素信号通路为主线,揭示了T2DM中脑胰岛素抵抗(insulin resistance, IR)与AD之间的复杂机制,旨在加深对脑IR介导的AD病理过程的系统性理解,借此为延缓或治疗AD的认知功能障碍提供理论基础。     

Quercetin Protects against Okadaic Acid-Induced Injury via MAPK and PI3K/Akt/GSK3β Signaling Pathways in HT22 Hippocampal Neurons

Increasing evidence shows that oxidative stress and the hyperphosphorylation of tau protein play essential roles in the progression of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Quercetin is a major flavonoid that has anti-oxidant, anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory properties. We investigated the neuroprotective effects of quercetin to HT22 cells (a cell line from mouse hippocampal neurons). We found that Okadaic acid (OA) induced the hyperphosphorylation of tau protein at Ser199, Ser396, Thr205, and Thr231 and produced oxidative stress to the HT22 cells. The oxidative stress suppressed the cell viability and decreased the levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), mitochondria membrane potential (MMP) and Glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px). It up-regulated malondialdehyde (MDA) production and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). In addition, phosphoinositide 3 kinase/protein kinase B/Glycogen synthase kinase3β (PI3K/Akt/GSK3β) and mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) were also involved in this process. We found that pre-treatment with quercetin can inhibited OA-induced the hyperphosphorylation of tau protein and oxidative stress. Moreover, pre-treatment with quercetin not only inhibited OA-induced apoptosis via the reduction of Bax, and up-regulation of cleaved caspase 3, but also via the inhibition of PI3K/Akt/GSK3β, MAPKs and activation of NF-κB p65. Our findings suggest the therapeutic potential of quercetin to treat AD.     

Melatonin alleviates insulin resistance through the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in ovary granulosa cells of polycystic ovary syndrome

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common endocrine gynecological disorder. Insulin resistance (IR) is a major cause of PCOS. Melatonin, a critical endogenous hormone, has beneficial effects on the female reproductive system. This study aims to investigate the molecular effect of melatonin on IR in human ovarian granulosa cells (GCs). Hormone levels of the subjects were determined through clinical examination. The expression levels of insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1 and glucose transporter (GLUT4) in GCs from PCOS patients and a human granulosa cell line (SVOG) were examined using qRT-PCR and western blot. The IR cell model was established by inducing SVOG cells with palmitic acid (PA). IR was detected in GCs of PCOS patients and SVOG by measuring glucose content and glucose uptake. Cell viability and apoptosis levels were detected by CCK-8 assay and flow cytometry. PI3K/Akt pathway expression in SVOG was assessed by western blot. PCOS patients had higher levels of luteinizing hormone (LH), testosterone, and LH/follicle-stimulating hormone. PA decreased cell viability, promoted apoptosis, and reduced glucose uptake in SVOG cells. IRS-1 and GLUT4 mRNA and protein expression was downregulated, and glucose uptake capacity was reduced in PCOS GCs and SVOG cells. Melatonin significantly upregulated IRS-1 and GLUT4 expression, downregulated p-IRS-1 (Ser307), and improved glucose uptake in PCOS patients' GCs and SVOG cells. PA decreased PI3K and Akt phosphorylation, whereas melatonin increased p-PI3K and p-Akt levels. Melatonin can reduce IR in GCs and PA-induced SVOG cells via the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, providing more evidence for treating polycystic ovary syndrome.     

Coupling of mammalian target of rapamycin with phosphoinositide 3-kinase signaling pathway regulates protein phosphatase 2A- and glycogen synthase kinase-3 -dependent phosphorylation of Tau

Tau is an important microtubule-stabilizing protein in neurons. In its hyperphosphorylated form, Tau protein loses its ability to bind to microtubules and then accumulates and is part of pathological lesions characterizing tauopathies, e.g. Alzheimer disease. Glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK-3beta), antagonized by protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), regulates Tau phosphorylation at many sites. Diabetes mellitus is linked to an increased risk of developing Alzheimer disease. This could be partially caused by dysregulated GSK-3beta. In a long term experiment (-16 h) using primary murine neuron cultures, we interfered in the insulin/phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) (LY294002 treatment and insulin boost) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTor) (AICAR and rapamycin treatment) signaling pathways and examined consequent changes in the activities of PP2A, GSK-3beta, and Tau phosphorylation. We found that the coupling of PI3K with mTor signaling, in conjunction with a regulatory interaction between PP2A and GSK-3beta, changed activities of both enzymes always in the same direction. These balanced responses seem to ensure the steady Tau phosphorylation at GSK/PP2A-dependent sites observed over a long period of time (>/=6 h). This may help in preventing severe changes in Tau phosphorylation under conditions when neurons undergo transient fluctuations either in insulin or nutrient supply. On the other hand, the investigation of Tau protein at Ser-262 showed that interference in the insulin/PI3K and mTor signaling potentially influenced the Tau phosphorylation status at sites where only one of two enzymes (in this case PP2A) is involved in the regulation.