Extrapair paternity in hooded warblers

We examined the role of extrapair fertilizations (EPFs) in themating system of the hooded warbler (Wilsonia citrina), a monogamoussongbird. DNA fingerprinting revealed that 8 of 17 (47%) femaleshad extrapair young in their first or second brood, and 23 of78 (29%) nestlings were the result of EPFs. Extrapair youngwere signifkandy more likely to occur in first broods than insecond broods. The proportion of EPFs within a brood was stronglybirnodal among broods: nests had 50% or more extrapair youngor none. In seven of eight broods where EPFs occurred, an adjacentmale neighbor was identified as the actual father. Male-likecoloration in females did not reduce the likelihood of havingextrapair young. Females with extrapair young did not receiveless parental care from their mates. All males who obtainedEPFs were mated to fertile females or were feeding offspringat the time they most likely mated with the extrapair female.Our results are consistent with the female control hypothesis,which predicts that females benefit from extrapair copulations(EPCs) and have some control over which males, if any, obtainEPCs. However, we could not reject the alternative hypothesisthat some male neighbors are particularly dominant and aggressiveduring EPC attempts, so females accept these EPCs to minimizecosts.     

Extrapair paternity in the great tit (Parus major): a test of the "good genes" hypothesis

In 1993 and 1994 we determined the frequency of extrapair paternityin broods of great tits, Parus major using multilocus DNA fingerprinting.We found no instances of intraspecific brood parasitism, but40% of broods (31/78) contained extrapair-fathered young and83% of offspring (58/681) were xtrapair We identified the geneticfathers of 60% of the extrapair nestlings (35/ 58). Males withfull and lost paternity did not differ significantly in traitsthat have been suggested to indicate male quality, nor did thegenetic and social fathers of extrapair offspring. In 1993,cuckolded males sired more offspring that recruited to the subsequentbreeding season than males with full paternity. Moreover, eventhough genetic fathers of extrapair young (EPY) sired more fledglingsthan the males they cuckolded, genetic and social fathers ofEPY did not differ in the number of recruits sired. Also, theEPY of a brood did not survive better than their half sibs.Thus, our results do not supportthe hypothesis that femaleschoose better quality males for extrapair matings ("good genes"hypothesis). Further, the level of extrapair paternity differedmarkedly between the two years. Our data show that females areconstrained in their extrapair activities by the availabilityof extrapair mates. This is at least partly due to yearly differencesin breeding synchrony.     

Deceptive use of alarm calls by male swallows, Hirundo rustica: a new paternity guard

Male swallows (Hirundo rustica) frequently gave alarm callswhen their fertile mates left the nest vicinity without themale during egg laying. Females engaged in extrapair copulationsduring such absences when they were not guarded intensely bytheir mates. However, males were sometimes able to disrupt extrapaircopulation attempts toward their mates by giving alarm calls,causing all nearby swallows to take flight. I experimentallytested the idea that male swallows gave alarm calls when theircertainty of paternity was at stake. When colonially breedingfemale swallows were temporarily chased away from their nestduring the egglaying period in the absence of their mates, malesnearly always gave alarm calls when they returned to the emptynest. In contrast, colonially breeding males rarely gave alarmcalls when their mates were absent during the prelaying or theincubation periods. Solitarily breeding males rarely gave alarmcalls in the absence of their mates, irrespective of the timein their nesting cycle. However, solitarily breeding males didgive alarm calls when their mates were absent from the nestif a male mount previously had been presented near their nestduring the egg-laying and the prelaying periods, but not duringthe incubation period. Deceptive use of alarm calls (in theabsence of any predators) by male swallows apparently was aneffective paternity guard.     

Male mating strategies and the mating system of great-tailed grackles

Great-tailed grackles (Quiscalus mexicanus) are sexually dimorphic,dichromatic, colonially nesting blackbirds. In this study, males pursued three basic types of conditional mating strategies,each of which employed a different set of mating tactics. Territorialmales defended one or more trees in which several females nested.They achieved reproductive success by siring the offspringof their social mates and through extrapair fertilization.Resident males lived in the colony but did not defend territoriesor have social mates. Transient males passed through the colony, staying no more than a few days, and probably visited more thanone colony. Residents appeared to queue for access to territories,but transients did not. Residents and transients gained allpaternity through extrapair fertilizations and provided noparental care. Territorial males sired the majority of offspring,but residents and transients also sired small numbers of nestlings. Territorial males were larger and had longer tails than nonterritorialmales. The number of social mates was related to body size,and males that sired nestlings were heavier and had longertails than males with no genetic reproductive success. Malesthat gained paternity through extrapair fertilization wereheavier and had longer tails than males that did not. The matingsystem of great-tailed grackles can best be categorized as "non-faithful-female frank polygyny."     

Monogamy in black vultures: genetic evidence from DNA fingerprinting

Recent research has indicated that avian mating systems maycommonly deviate from monogamy due to extrapair fertilizations(EPFs). Because the majority of avian species have long beenconsidered monogamous, accurate measurement of the frequencyof EPFs in a variety of species is important to enhance understandingof the evolution of avian mating systems. We used DNA fingerprintingto investigate the apparently monogamous mating system of blackvultures (Coragyps airaius) by assaying parentage within severalnuclear families. Monogamy is suggested in black vultures becausemated pairs exhibit long-term pair bonding and year-round association,and share incubation and nestling feeding duties equally. Thirtytwobreeders and 36 nestlings representing 16 complete nuclear familieswere tagged for individual identification and sampled for DNAanalysis using 2 restriction enzymes and 3 probes for hypervariableregions. Putative parents were assigned parentage in all cases.We empirically examined the probability of detecting EPFs bycomparing nestlings' fingerprints to those of a putative parentand another randomly chosen adult. All putative parents couldbe assigned with 95%confidence and all outside adults couldbe similarly excluded. There is therefore no evidence for successfulEPFs in this population, indicating a mating system that doesnot deviate from strict monogamy. The complex social behaviorof black vultures may eliminate the opportunity for EPFs dueto the prohibition of copulations in the presence of relatives.     

Female extrapair mate choice in a cooperative breeder: trading sex for help and increasing offspring heterozygosity

Sexual conflict between males and females over mating is common. Females that copulate with extrapair mates outside the pair-bond may gain (i) direct benefits such as resources or increased paternal care, (ii) indirect genetic benefits for their offspring, or (iii) insurance against infertility in their own social mate. Few studies have been able to demonstrate the different contexts in which females receive varying types of benefits from extrapair mates. Here, I examined sexual conflict, female extrapair mate choice, and patterns of extrapair paternity in the cooperatively breeding superb starling Lamprotornis superbus using microsatellite markers. Although extrapair paternity was lower than many other avian cooperative breeders (14% of offspring and 25% of nests), females exhibited two distinct mating patterns: half of the extrapair fertilizations were with males from inside the group, whereas half were with males from outside the group. Females with few potential helpers copulated with extrapair mates from within their group and thereby gained direct benefits in the form of additional helpers at the nest, whereas females paired to mates that were relatively less heterozygous than themselves copulated with extrapair mates from outside the group and thereby gained indirect genetic benefits in the form of increased offspring heterozygosity. Females did not appear to gain fertility insurance from copulating with extrapair mates. This is the first study to show that individuals from the same population mate with extrapair males and gain both direct and indirect benefits, but that they do so in different contexts.     

High frequency of extrapair fertilization in a plural breeding bird, the Mexican jay, revealed by DNA microsatellites

We used tetra-nucleotide microsatellite DNA typing to estimate the frequency of extrapair fertilization (EPF) in a plural breeding species, the Mexican jay, Aphelocoma ultramarina, in Arizona. We found EPF in 32 of 51 complete broods (63%) and 55 of 139 nestlings (40%) for which the putative father had been identified (one of the highest rates of EPF known for birds). At least 96.1% of EPF fathers came from within the group. This is by far the highest known within-group EPF rate among socially monogamous, communally rearing species. Most (70%) males of breeding age (3+ years) had no genetic paternity in a given year. Social fathers (i.e. those with nests and mated females) rarely obtained EPFs; of 25 social fathers, 23 had young in only one nest and only two had young in two nests by virtue of EPF. Of the 27 males known to be EPF fathers without a nest of their own, none had young in more than one nest. Only 7% of EPF fathers had their own broods reaching banding age (day 14), compared with 29.7% of social fathers. The proportion of EPF young was significantly larger in smaller broods. Breeding females in all age classes were equally likely to have EPF young. Copyright 2000 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.     

Is Mate Provisioning Predicted by Ornamentation? A Test with Northern Cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis)

Male birds of many species feed their mates during courtship and incubation. The amount of food provided can be substantial and even essential for successful reproduction in some species, and can influence female nest attentiveness in many others. Additionally, mate provisioning may predict later nestling feeding rates. Females may thus benefit from being able to determine male provisioning effort. We assessed the expression of several ornaments, known to indicate condition in male northern cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis), and compared these with mate provisioning rates, nestling feeding rates, and nest attentiveness. We found that male ornamentation may not be indicative of mate provisioning rates. Mate provisioning rate did not co‐vary with reproductive success, male feedings to nestlings, or nest attentiveness of females. However, females which were fed more often during incubation tended to provision nestlings less. Reduced female parental effort following extensive incubation feeding may be indicative of females using incubation feeding to assess future male parental effort. Male hormonal condition that favors high rates of nestling provisioning may be a proximate cause of mate provisioning during incubation, even in the absence of selection, favoring high rates of mate provisioning. Both sexes may have capitalized on this unselected behavior.     

Patterns and correlates of extrapair paternity in American redstarts (Setophaga ruticilla)

We examined correlates and hypotheses pertaining to extrapairfertilizations in socially monogamous American redstarts (Setophagaruticilla). DNA fingerprinting revealed extrapair fertilizationin 59% of broods (19 of 32), involving 40% of nestlings (43of 108). Fewer broods than expected had mixed paternity, asdetermined from a binomial distribution of extrapair young inthe population. This result is consistent with the "good genes"hypothesis, but not with the "genetic diversity" hypothesis.There was a negative association between the age of putativefathers and the proportion of extrapair young in their broods.Irrespective of age, males with prior residency were cuckoldedless often than males new to the study area. Extrapair fatherswere' immediate neighbors in 7 of 10 cuckolded broods whereall neighbors were sampled. Males were more likely to sire offspringin the territories of younger neighbors than in those of olderneighbors. Plumage characteristics of adult males, breedingsynchrony of females, and breeding densities were not significantlyassociated with cuckoldry. Realized reproductive gain from cuckoldrywas small because of high nest predation in our area. Extrapairfertilizations allowed one-quarter of males whose own nestshad failed to achieve some reproductive success. Only 2 of 17males whose own nests were successful also had extrapair young.There was no egg dumping by females. We conclude that male ageand prior residency were predictors of cuckoldry in Americanredstarts. In the context of the heavy predation experiencedby our birds, extrapair fertilizations allowed many males tosalvage some reproductive success and did not increase the varianceof success across males     

Extrapair Paternity and Maternity in the Three-Toed Woodpecker,Picoides tridactylus: Insights from Microsatellite-Based Parentage Analysis

Molecular techniques have revealed that avian mating systems are more diverse and complex than previously thought. We used microsatellite markers to determine genetic parentage, the prevalence of extrapair paternity and quasi-parasitism (i.e. situations where a male''s extrapair mate lay in his nest) in a socially monogamous population of three-toed woodpeckers (Picoides tridactylus) in southern Finland. A total of 129 adults and nestlings, representing 5–9 families annually from 2004–2007, were genotyped at up to ten microsatellite loci. The results of genetic assignment tests confirmed that monogamous parentage characterized the majority (84.6%, 22/26) of broods, and that most (93.8%, 75/80) nestlings were the offspring of their social parents. Two of 80 nestlings (2.5%) in two of 26 broods (7.7%) were sired by extrapair males and quasi-parasitism occurred in 3.8% (3/80) of nestlings and 7.7% (2/26) of broods. Hence, the levels of extrapair parentage were low, possibly because both genetic polygyny and polyandry are constrained by the high paternal effort required for parental care. The co-occurrence of low levels of extrapair paternity and quasi-parasitism are discussed in light of ecological and behavioural factors characterizing the species biology.     

Male share of provisioning is not influenced by actual or apparent loss of paternity in western bluebirds

Approximately 45% of western bluebird (Sialia mexicana) femaleshave some chicks in the nest that are not sired by their socialmates. Extrapair fertilizations account for 42% of offspringin these nests and 19% of nestlings overall. I tested the hypothesisthat males reduce nestling provisioning when their certaintyof paternity or share of paternity is reduced. Capture and detentionof socially monogamous males for 1 h or 24 h during the layingperiod reduced males' copulatory access and their ability tomate guard, increasing the frequency with which extrapair malesintruded and attempted to copulate with resident females. Malesdetained during laying did not reduce their share of feedingtrips compared to control males detained during incubation,compared to unmanipulated males, or compared to males that werecaptured but not detained. Males detained on territory for 1h during the laying period did not reduce their share of feedingtrips when they observed male intrusion, nor when they observedtheir mates accepting extrapair copulations. Males that witnessedtheir mates accepting extrapair copulations did not reduce theirshare of risk in provisioning. Genetic fingerprinting at nonexperimentalnests indicated that males also failed to reduce their feedingcontributions when their estimated share of paternity was reduced,even when a helper male was present to reduce the impact onnestlings. These results suggest that male western bluebirdsdo not make significant adjustments in their share of provisioningwhen they have evidence of partial paternity loss. Togetherwith prior results, this study suggests that western bluebirdmales use an all-or-none rule, contributing approximately halfof the parental provisioning at nests, as long they have somecopulatory access to the female during egg laying.     

Extrapair paternity and the opportunity for sexual selection in long-distant migratory passerines

Extrapair fertilizations (EPFs) are frequently documented insongbirds; however, the extent to which this reproductive tacticcontributes to variance in male reproductive success and hencethe strength of sexual selection on males remains little studied.Using 2 approaches, intraspecific and comparative, we test thehypothesis that the contribution of EPFs to variance in malefitness increases with migration distance in north temperatesongbirds. Using data on the genetic mating system of the scarletrosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus, a long-distance migrant, weshow that the number of extrapair mates and within-pair paternityare the most important components of variance in male reproductivesuccess. There was no evidence of a trade-off between extrapairand within-pair success of individual males as males successfulin procuring EPFs were less likely to be cuckolded. Comparativedata reveal that the opportunity for sexual selection due toEPFs is positively associated with both migration distance andbreeding synchrony in north temperate passerines, and we discussseveral mechanisms that could extend these relationships. Ingeneral, these data suggest that EPFs have a potential to playan important role in the evolution of sexually selected traitsin long-distance migratory songbirds such as rosefinches.     

Black-capped vireo nest predator assemblage and predictors for nest predation

Nest predation is a major limiting factor for songbird productivity, including the federally endangered black-capped vireo (Vireo atricapilla). However, nest predator information is limited across the range of the black-capped vireo in central and southwest Texas. We monitored nests in 3 counties within the breeding range of black-capped vireos in Texas in 2008 and 2009 and used continuous recording digital video cameras to record predation events. We video-monitored 115 nests and documented 39 predation events by at least 9 predator species. Overall, we observed avian species (51%, n = 39), specifically brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater; n = 12), and snakes (26%, n = 39) as the most frequent nest predators. The estimated daily nest survival rate during the laying and incubation stage was 0.985 (95% CI = 0.967–0.993) and 0.944 (95% CI = 0.921–0.961) during the nestling stage. In addition, we analyzed models of predator-specific nest predation using multinomial logistic regression. Effect of nest height on predation rate was significant for snakes; nest stage was significant for nests depredated by avian predators. By identifying and increasing our knowledge of nest predators and vegetation characteristics associated with greater risk of predation in multiple locations within the black-capped vireo's range, we can effectively manage habitat to benefit recovery efforts of the species. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.     

Nest desertion by a cowbird host: an antiparasite behavior or a response to egg loss?

Natural selection can favor songbirds that desert nests containingeggs of the parasitic brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater).However, the high variability in desertion of parasitized nestswithin species is perplexing in light of the typically highcosts of parasitism. Because nest desertion can also be a responseto partial clutch predation, we first asked if Bell's vireos(Vireo bellii) deserted nests in response to the presence ofcowbird eggs (antiparasite response hypothesis) or to egg removalby predators and female cowbirds (egg predation hypothesis).Second, we asked whether variation in nest desertion was dueto intrinsic differences among individuals or to variation innest contents. We monitored a large number of nests (n = 494)and performed a clutch manipulation experiment to test thesehypotheses. The number of vireo eggs that remained in a nestwas a strong predictor of desertion both within and among pairs.Neither the presence of a single cowbird egg, which leads tonest failure for this host, nor the number of cowbird eggs receivedin a vireo nest influenced nest desertion. Furthermore, vireosdid not desert experimental nests when we immediately exchangedcowbird eggs for vireo eggs but deserted if we removed vireoeggs and replaced them with cowbird eggs the following morning.Desertion of parasitized nests by Bell's vireos can be almostentirely explained as a response to partial or complete clutchloss and does not appear to have been altered by selection frombrood parasitism.     

Exogenous testosterone inhibits several forms of male parental behavior and stimulates song in a monogamous songbird: the blue-headed vireo (Vireo solitarius)

Natural variation in circulating testosterone is thought to play a role in creating inter- and intraspecific variation in paternal care in birds. Experimental elevation of plasma testosterone in males has reduced rates of male care in many species. However, a small number of studies suggest that male care is not inhibited by testosterone when there appears to be strong selection for male care. Both genetic monogamy and male incubation are thought to be the result of selection for biparental care, yet the sensitivity of male care to inhibition by T had not been examined in a species with both characteristics. Male blue-headed vireos have been shown to be strictly monogamous and provide extensive parental care, including incubation. Males received subcutaneous implants of testosterone, flutamide (an anti-androgen), or empty controls. Consistent with previous studies, testosterone treatment decreased the relative contribution to incubation by males and increased the average duration that the nest was left unattended during incubation, relative to control and flutamide treatments. The relative and absolute rates of feeding offspring and nest sanitation by T-treated males also decreased relative to controls. Flutamide-treated males incubated eggs and brooded young more than testosterone-treated males, with control males performing at intermediate values. Testosterone-treated males sang more often and at higher rates, and flutamide-treated males sang less often, than controls. These results demonstrate that even in a strictly monogamous songbird with biparental incubation, all forms of paternal care remain sensitive to elevated plasma testosterone, suggesting a shift from parental effort to mating effort.     

Low frequency of extrapair paternity in the polygynous great reed warbler, Acrocephalus arundinaceus

We carried out DNA fingerprinting on 553 young (130 broods)great reed warblers (Acrocephalus arundnaceus) in 1987–1991.In the study population, where 40% of the males become polygynous,there was a low frequency of extrapair fertilizations (EPF).When data from all five years were pooled, 3.1% of the youngwere sired by extrapair males (EPF-males) and 5.4% of the broodscontained extrapair young. We found no cases of extrapair maternity;young with 6–17 mismatched DNA bands (n= 17) had highband sharing with their putative mothers (range = 0.52–0.72)but low band sharing with their putative fathers (range = 0.24–0.40).In broods exposed to EPF, on average 53% of the young were siredby EPF-males. We found the genetic father to each of the illegitimateyoung. In all cases the same EPF-male sired all extrapair youngin a brood. Broods containing EPF-young tended to be initiatedlate during the breeding season. Breeding attempts were ratherevenly distributed over two months, thus this breeding asynchronywould have facilitated EPFs. There was no difference in EPFfrequency between broods where the pair males had left theirfemales unguarded during parts of their fertile periods andbroods where males guarded throughout the fertile periods. Nestswith extrapair young had significantly shorter mean distanceto the closest male neighbor and more male neighbors within100 m than nests without extrapair young. We found no indicationthat females engaged in EPF to get parental care from the EPF-males,or because they were forced to copulate with extrapair males.The low frequency of EPF suggested that females did not seekgenetic diversity to their brood. We cannot rule out the possibilitythat females engaged in EPF to insure fertility. However, datasupporting this hypothesis were weak. Instead, our data supportthe conclusion that females engaged in EPF to increase the geneticquality of their offspring, and that females may have used malesong repertoire size as a cue when choosing EPF partners.     

Polygyny and extrapair fertilizations in eastern red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus)

Parentage of nestling red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus)from an eastern population was determinedusing DNA fingerprintingtechniques. Of 235 nestlings surveyed, 58 had fingerprints excludingthemale, but none excluded the female tending the nest. Data onpairing status during the female's fertilizable period was availablefor 232 offspring; 55 (25%of 1988 nestlings, 23% of 1989 nestlings)of those were sired through extrapair copulations. Of these55 offspring, 33 could be assigned to nearby territory holders;16 of the remaining nestlings may have been sired by nearbymales that were not captured. During both years, 44% of territorialmales had more than one female nesting simultaneously on theirterritory. The number of extrapair fertilizations gained bymales increased significandy with harem size in 1 year. Paternity(die proportion of nesdings on the territory sired by die territoryholder) showed a positive but nonsignificant increase widi haremsize in bodi years. There was no apparent cost in paternityfor males guarding two or more fertilizable females at the sametime. The broods of females that were fertilizable at die sametime anodier female was setding on die same territory tendedto have a greater proportion of extrapair fertilizations (0.37)than did die broods of odier females within harems (0.15). Establishedfertilizable females were chased significantly more by die territoryowner and by extrapair males when a new female was setding.There were no associations between a male's paternity or successat gaining extrapair fertilizations and his age or color-bandcombination. Overall, extrapair fertilizations had litde effecton die relationship between fledgling success and harem sizeand appeared to have a minimal impact on die overall intensityof sexual selection on males.     

Extrapair paternity in relation to sexual ornamentation, arrival date, and condition in a migratory bird

We tested the novel hypothesis that arrival date in migratorybirds represents a reliable indicator of male quality that canbe used by females as a cue in extrapair mating decisions. Secondarysexual characters are often condition-dependent, and competitionfor early arrival leads to condition-dependent migration. Hence,both secondary sexual characters and arrival date are predictedto be condition-dependent indicators of male phenotypic quality.We studied the relationship between expression of a secondarysexual character, arrival date, and condition, respectively,and extrapair paternity in a Spanish population of barn swallows,Hirundo rustica. By using microsatellite markers to determinepaternity, we showed that 17.8% of all offspring (N = 674) and32.4% of all broods (N = 170) were due to extrapair paternity.Quasi-parasitism (in which the male nest owner fathered theoffspring, but the eggs were laid by another female) occurredin 2.6% of all nestlings and 2.9% of all broods. Individualswere consistent in the frequency of extrapair paternity amongfirst, second, and third broods. Males with long outermost tailfeathers, arriving early and in prime body condition, had littleextrapair paternity in their nests. This was also the case whencontrolling for the confounding effects of male age. Partialcorrelation analysis was used to investigate the direct andindirect effects of tail length, arrival date, and body conditionon extrapair paternity. Body condition accounted for most ofthe variance in extrapair paternity, whereas tail length andarrival date accounted for a smaller proportion of the variance.Body condition was strongly correlated with tail length andarrival date. However, because females cannot directly assesscondition or arrival date (males arrive before females), femalesmay obtain an indirect measure of condition and migration abilityfrom tail length and other phenotypic traits of males. Thissuggests that extrapair paternity depends on the effects ofcondition, through its indirect effects on arrival date, taillength, and other variables.     

The use of extrapair copulations for mate appraisal by razorbills, Alca torda

Razorbills (Alca Undo) engaged in extrapair copulations (EPCs)during two phases of their breeding cycle when fertilizationof eggs was not possible, suggesting that EPCs provide nongeneticbenefits. Females actively pursued extrapair mountings afterthey completed egg laying, the first monogamous species reportedto do so. Mountings were performed in mating arenas outsideof the breeding colony, where attendance by postlaying femalesindicated that they sought encounters with extrapair males whiletheir mates were incubating. Postlaying females always successfullyresisted insemination yet positioned themselves to receive mountings.These findings support the hypothesis that resistance to inseminationis a ploy used by females to appraise males. At the end of thebreeding cycle, when males escorted the fledgling to sea, femalesremained at the colony where they consorted and sometimes copulatedwith other males. Nonfertilizable extrapair copulations mayserve two social functions for razorbills: female appraisalof males for future fertilizable EPCs and the appraisal andacquisition of new mates by both sexes.     

Paternal care as a conditional strategy: distinct reproductive tactics associated with elaboration of plumage ornamentation in the house finch

When individuals in a population differ in physiological conditionand residual reproductive value, selection should favor phenotypicplasticity in reproductive investment such that individualsare able to adopt the reproductive tactic that results in thehighest fitness under given conditions. Here we examined reproductivetactics in relation to the elaboration of condition-dependentsexual ornamentation (carotenoid breast coloration) in a Montanapopulation of the house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus). Malesused distinct reproductive tactics depending on elaborationof their sexual ornamentation. Males with red pigmentation (maximum ornament elaboration) paired with females that nestedearlier, but these males did little provisioning of incubatingfemales and nestlings. In contrast, males with yellow colorationpaired with females that nested later, but these males fedfemale and nestlings more. Consequently, for red males offspringrecruitment was primarily affected by earlier nest initiation, whereas in yellow males it was affected most by male provisioning.In males with intermediate plumage coloration, all measuredcomponents, nest initiation, provisioning of incubating female,and nestling feeding, strongly contributed to offspring recruitment.The fitness consequences of alternative reproductive tacticsof males were influenced by breeding experience and fidelityof their mates. Among first-time breeders, red males achievedthe highest fecundity because of the advantage gained throughearly nesting and pairing with more experienced females andbecause of compensation by their mates for low male provisioningof nestlings. Among experienced breeders, males with intermediateplumage coloration achieved the highest fecundity because ofthe combined benefits of relatively early pairing and high parental care. High variation in sexual ornamentation in a Montana populationof house finches may favor distinct associations of sexualdisplays with a particular set of reproductive behaviors.