Mapping the intestinal alpha-glucogenic enzyme specificities of starch digesting maltase-glucoamylase and sucrase-isomaltase

Inhibition of intestinal α-glucosidases and pancreatic α-amylases is an approach to controlling blood glucose and serum insulin levels in individuals with Type II diabetes. The two human intestinal glucosidases are maltase-glucoamylase and sucrase-isomaltase. Each incorporates two family 31 glycoside hydrolases responsible for the final step of starch hydrolysis. Here we compare the inhibition profiles of the individual N- and C-terminal catalytic subunits of both glucosidases by clinical glucosidase inhibitors, acarbose and miglitol, and newly discovered glucosidase inhibitors from an Ayurvedic remedy used for the treatment of Type II diabetes. We show that features of the compounds introduce selectivity towards the subunits. Together with structural data, the results enhance the understanding of the role of each catalytic subunit in starch digestion, helping to guide the development of new compounds with subunit specific antidiabetic activity. The results may also have relevance to other metabolic diseases such as obesity and cardiovascular disease.     

Chebulagic acid is a potent alpha-glucosidase inhibitor

Chebulagic acid, isolated form Terminalia chebula Retz, proved to be a reversible and non-competitive inhibitor of maltase with a K(i) value of 6.6 muM. The inhibitory influence of chebulagic acid on the maltase-glucoamylase complex was more potent than on the sucrase-isomaltase complex. The magnitude of alpha-glucosidase inhibition by chebulagic acid was greatly affected by its origin. These results show a use for chebulagic acid in managing type-2 diabetes.     

Probing the active-site requirements of human intestinal N-terminal maltase-glucoamylase: Synthesis and enzyme inhibitory activities of a six-membered ring nitrogen analogue of kotalanol and its de-O-sulfonated derivative

In order to probe the active-site requirements of the human N-terminal subunit of maltase-glucoamylase (ntMGAM), one of the clinically relevant intestinal enzymes targeted for the treatment of type-2 diabetes, the syntheses of two new inhibitors are described. The target compounds are structural hybrids of kotalanol, a naturally occurring glucosidase inhibitor with a unique five-membered ring sulfonium-sulfate inner salt structure, and miglitol, a six-membered ring antidiabetic drug that is currently in clinical use. The compounds comprise the six-membered ring of miglitol and the side chain of kotalanol or its de-O-sulfonated derivative. Inhibition studies of these hybrid molecules with human ntMGAM indicated that they are inhibitors of this enzyme with comparable K(i) values to that of miglitol (kotalanol analogue: 2.3±0.6μM; corresponding de-O-sulfonated analogue: 1.4±0.5μM; miglitol: 1.0±0.1μM). However, they are less active compared to kotalanol (K(i)=0.19±0.03μM). These results suggest that the (3)T(2) enzyme-bound conformation of the five-membered thiocyclitol moiety of the kotalanol class of compounds more closely resembles the (4)H(3) conformation of the proposed transition state for the formation of an enzyme-substrate covalent intermediate in the glycosidase hydrolase family 31 (GH31)-catalyzed reaction.     

Reactivity of Amylose and Dextran in Metal-Catalyzed Hydroxyl Radical Generating Systems

Chebulagic acid, isolated form Terminalia chebula Retz, proved to be a reversible and non-competitive inhibitor of maltase with a K _i value of 6.6 μM. The inhibitory influence of chebulagic acid on the maltase-glucoamylase complex was more potent than on the sucrase-isomaltase complex. The magnitude of α-glucosidase inhibition by chebulagic acid was greatly affected by its origin. These results show a use for chebulagic acid in managing type-2 diabetes.     

Biosynthesis of intestinal microvillar proteins. Pulse-chase labelling studies on maltase-glucoamylase, aminopeptidase A and dipeptidyl peptidase IV

The biogenesis of three intestinal microvillar enzymes, maltase-glucoamylase (EC 3.2.1.20), aminopeptidase A (aspartate aminopeptidase, EC 3.4.11.7) and dipeptidyl peptidase IV (EC 3.4.14.5), was studied by pulse-chase labelling of pig small-intestinal explants kept in organ culture. The earliest detectable forms of the enzymes were polypeptides of Mr 225000, 140000 and 115000 respectively. These were found to represent the enzymes in a 'high-mannose' state of glycosylation, as judged by their susceptibility to treatment with endo-beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase H (EC 3.2.1.96). After about 40-60 min of chase, maltase-glucoamylase, aminopeptidase A and dipeptidyl peptidase IV were further modified to yield the mature polypeptides of Mr 245000, 170000 and 137000 respectively, which were expressed at the microvillar membrane after 60-90 min of chase. The fact that the enzymes before reaching the microvillar membrane were found in a Ca2+-precipitated membrane fraction (intracellular and basolateral membranes), but not in soluble form, indicates that during biogenesis maltase-glucoamylase, aminopeptidase A and dipeptidyl peptidase IV are transported and assembled in a membrane-bound state.     

Modulation of Starch Digestion for Slow Glucose Release through "Toggling" of Activities of Mucosal α-Glucosidases

Starch digestion involves the breakdown by α-amylase to small linear and branched malto-oligosaccharides, which are in turn hydrolyzed to glucose by the mucosal α-glucosidases, maltase-glucoamylase (MGAM) and sucrase-isomaltase (SI). MGAM and SI are anchored to the small intestinal brush-border epithelial cells, and each contains a catalytic N- and C-terminal subunit. All four subunits have α-1,4-exohydrolytic glucosidase activity, and the SI N-terminal subunit has an additional exo-debranching activity on the α-1,6-linkage. Inhibition of α-amylase and/or α-glucosidases is a strategy for treatment of type 2 diabetes. We illustrate here the concept of "toggling": differential inhibition of subunits to examine more refined control of glucogenesis of the α-amylolyzed starch malto-oligosaccharides with the aim of slow glucose delivery. Recombinant MGAM and SI subunits were individually assayed with α-amylolyzed waxy corn starch, consisting mainly of maltose, maltotriose, and branched α-limit dextrins, as substrate in the presence of four different inhibitors: acarbose and three sulfonium ion compounds. The IC(50) values show that the four α-glucosidase subunits could be differentially inhibited. The results support the prospect of controlling starch digestion rates to induce slow glucose release through the toggling of activities of the mucosal α-glucosidases by selective enzyme inhibition. This approach could also be used to probe associated metabolic diseases.     

Inhibitory effects of ellagi- and gallotannins on rat intestinal alpha-glucosidase complexes

The clove ellagitannins and their related polygalloyl-glucoses inhibited maltase activity of rat intestinal alpha-glucosidases. The structure-activity relationship study of those galloylglucoses, varying the extent of galloylation on the glucose core, with the ellagitannins, indicated that an increasing number of galloyl units in the molecule lead to an increase in the inhibitory activity. Penta-O-galloyl-beta-D-glucose, with five galloyl groups showed the highest inhibitory activity. On the other hand, hexahydroxydiphenoyl units contained in the ellagitannins had little effect on the activity. After separation of maltase-glucoamylase and sucrase-isomaltase complexes from the crude mixture of the rat alpha-glucosidases, the inhibitory activities of the galloylglucose derivatives against each complex were examined. The inhibitory influence on the maltase-glucoamylase complex was more potent than on the sucrase-isomaltase complex.     

Pig intestinal microvillar maltase-glucoamylase. Structure and membrane insertion

The NH2-terminal sequence (25 residues) of amphiphilic single polypeptide chain maltase-glucoamylase (EC 3.2.1.20) was determined by gas-phase sequencing. The result indicates that the NH2-terminal segment anchors the enzyme to the microvillar membrane. The single-chain form and the proteolytically processed two-chain form have two distinct active sites differing in heat stability. However, both sites are sensitive to chonduritol B-epoxide and have similar substrate specificity. The amphiphilic single-chain maltase-glucoamylase and the amphiphilic proteolytically processed form were inserted into liposomes and studied by electron microscopy. The results showed that the enzyme is predominantly present as a homodimeric complex in the membrane.     

Kinetic studies on glucoamylase of rabbit small intestine.

The kinetic properties of a maltase-glucoamylase complex with a neutral pH optimum, purified to homogeneity from the brush borders of the rabbit small intestine, are described. It has a broad range of substrate specificity, hydrolysing di- and poly-saccharides with alpha-1,4 and alpha-1,6 linkages. The Km and Vmax, values of the enzyme for the various substrates were determined. Starch and maltose were its best substrates. The kinetics of hydrolysis of two synthetic linear maltosaccharides, namely maltotriose and maltopentaose, were studied. Mixed-substrate incubation studies revealed the presence of at least two interacting sites on the enzyme, and the data were further analysed by the use of a number of non-substrate inhibitors.     

Hydrophobic binding domains of rat intestinal maltase-glucoamylase

Rat intestinal microvillus maltase-glucoamylase was isolated by detergent extraction and purification in the presence of protease inhibitors as previously described and incorporated into phospholipid vesicles. After purification of the vesicles on Sephadex G-50, maltase was labelled with 3-trifluoromethyl-3-(m-[125I]iodophenyl) diazirine ([125I]TID) by photolysis using a water-jacketed mercury vapour lamp with a saturated CuSO4 filter. The labelled enzyme was extracted with acetone, resuspended in 1% Triton X-100, reincorporated into phospholipid vesicles, and digested with activated papain to release the hydrophilic polar head of the enzyme from the vesicle bilayer. Vesicle-bound and free enzyme components were separated on Sepharose 4B. Ninety percent of the enzymatic activity was free, while a similar percentage of radioactive label remained with the vesicles in keeping with the separation of an active polar headpiece from a labelled apolar peptide in the lipid bilayer. The vesicle fractions were subjected to chromatography on Sephadex LH-60 with ethanol--formic acid (7:3) as the eluant. A single radioactive peak (14 kilodaltons (kDa)) was separated from labelled lipid. Sodium dodecyl sulfate--polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the peak showed a radioactive doublet of 26-28 kDa, possibly representing a dimer. No other labelled peptides were found. These results suggest that detergent-solubilized maltase-glucoamylase is inserted into the phospholipid bilayer via an apolar peptide with a minimum molecular mass of 14 kDa. The peptide probably represents a terminal anchor segment of the 145-kDa subunit which is converted to 130 kDa when the membrane-bound enzyme is solubilized by papain.     

Comparison of sialylation of maltase-glucoamylase in brush-border and soluble fractions of the small intestine of immature rats.

Two fractions of high-molar-mass soluble neutral maltase-glucoamylase (G1 and G2) of distal small intestine of 18-day-old rats separated on Sepharose 4B differ in sialylation which is reflected in their pI values obtained by chromatofocusing. The major soluble G1 fraction shows eight sialylated peaks converted by neuraminidase into a single fraction eluted at pH 4.21. Fraction G2 is less sialylated and neuraminidase causes its pI shift to 4.36. The chromatofocusing pattern suggests that G1 contains more acidic and G2 more basic glycoforms than their membrane-bound counterpart. Presence of less acidic pI values in the soluble G1 fraction of 18-day-old rats than in that of 13-day-old rats indicates that developmental decrease of sialylation concerns not only membrane-bound but also the soluble membrane-type of maltase-glucoamylase.     

Structural insight into substrate specificity of human intestinal maltase-glucoamylase

Human maltase-glucoamylase (MGAM) hydrolyzes linear alpha-1,4-linked oligosaccharide substrates, playing a crucial role in the production of glucose in the human lumen and acting as an efficient drug target for type 2 diabetes and obesity. The amino- and carboxyl-terminal portions of MGAM (MGAM-N and MGAM-C) carry out the same catalytic reaction but have different substrate specificities. In this study, we report crystal structures of MGAM-C alone at a resolution of 3.1 ?, and in complex with its inhibitor acarbose at a resolution of 2.9 ?. Structural studies, combined with biochemical analysis, revealed that a segment of 21 amino acids in the active site of MGAM-C forms additional sugar subsites (+2 and+3 subsites), accounting for the preference for longer substrates of MAGM-C compared with that of MGAM-N. Moreover, we discovered that a single mutation of Trp1251 to tyrosine in MGAM-C imparts a novel catalytic ability to digest branched alpha-1,6-linked oligosaccharides. These results provide important information for understanding the substrate specificity of alpha-glucosidases during the process of terminal starch digestion, and for designing more efficient drugs to control type 2 diabetes or obesity.     

Soluble neutral and acid maltases in the suckling-rat intestine. The effect of cortisol and development

The 100000g supernatants from 13-day-old suckling-rat intestinal homogenates contained 43.5% of the total intestinal maltase activity, compared with 7.1% in weaned adult rats aged 40 days. The soluble maltase activity was separated on Sepharose 4B into two quantitatively equal fractions at pH6.0, one containing a maltase with a neutral pH optimum and the other a maltase with an acid pH optimum. The neutral maltase was shown to be a maltase-glucoamylase identical with membrane-bound maltase-glucoamylase in molecular weight, heat-sensitivity, substrate specificity, K(m) for maltose and K(i) for Tris. The soluble enzyme was induced by cortisol, but the ratio of the soluble to bound enzyme fell during induction. Solubility of the neutral maltase was not accounted for by the action of endogenous proteinases under the preparative conditions used. It is postulated that the soluble neutral maltase is a membrane-dissociated form of the bound enzyme and that the relationship between these two forms is modulated by cortisol. The acid maltase generally resembled acid maltase of liver, muscle and kidney. It was shown to be a maltase-glucoamylase with optimal activity at pH3.0, and molecular weight of 136000 by density-gradient centrifugation. At pH3.0 its K(m) for maltose was 1.5mm. It was inhibited by turanose (K(i)=7.5mm) and Tris (K(i)=5.5mm) but not by p-chloromercuribenzoate or EDTA. Some 55% of its activity was destroyed by heating at 50 degrees C for 10min. The acid maltase closely resembled beta-glucuronidase and acid beta-galactosidase in its distribution in the intestine, response to tissue homogenization in various media, and decrease in activity with cortisol treatment and weaning, indicating that it was a typical lysosomal enzyme concentrated in the ileum.     

Antidiabetic potential of phytochemicals isolated from the stem bark of Myristica fatua Houtt. var. magnifica (Bedd.) Sinclair

Phytochemical investigation of the stem bark of Myristica fatua Houtt. led to the isolation of a new compound 1 (3-tridecanoylbenzoic acid), along with six known acylphenols (2–7). All the compounds displayed moderate inhibitory activity on α-amylase and significant activity on α-glucosidase; however malabaricone B (6) and C (7) were identified as potent α-glucosidase inhibitors with IC₅₀ values of 63.70?±?0.546, and 43.61?±?0.620?µM respectively. Acylphenols (compounds 3–7) also showed significant antiglycation property. The molecular docking and dynamics simulation studies confirmed the efficient binding of malabaricone C with C-terminus of human maltase-glucoamylase (2QMJ). Malabaricone B also enhanced the 2-NBDG [2-(N-(7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)amino)-2-deoxy glucose] uptake in L6 myotubes. These findings demonstrate that acylphenols isolated from Myristica fatua Houtt. can be considered as a lead scaffold for the treatment of type II diabetes mellitus.     

High molecular weight soluble neutral maltase-glucoamylases in the intestine of the suckling rat

Previous work from our laboratory has shown that the intestine of the suckling rat, unlike adult rat intestine, contains abundant quantities of at least two soluble neutral maltase-glucoamylases. These enzymes are related antigenically to membrane-bound maltase-glucoamylase, which predominates in adult intestine, but are either more easily solubilized or occupy a different cellular locus. To study the soluble enzymes further, we attempted their isolation from the intestine of 11-day-old suckling rats. Initial attempts were complicated by proteolytic degradation, despite the addition of phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, N-ethylmaleimide, leupeptin, pepstatin, and EDTA to buffers used for homogenization and column chromatography. Addition of aprotinin, amastatin, bestatin, and phosphoramidone resulted, however, in the isolation of two stable, high molecular weight maltases (HM1 and HM2). Both enzymes eluted before a papain-solubilized membrane-derived maltase-glucoamylase on Sepharose 4B and were separable by DE-52 and Sepharose 6B - Tris affinity columns. They were further purified on a lentil lectin - Sepharose 4B column. Substrate specificities were almost the same and characteristic of maltase-glucoamylases. Hydrophobic binding properties and pH optima of HM1 and HM2 were also similar. HM1 was resolved by sodium dodecyl sulfate - polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis into approximately equal portions of an endo-beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase H sensitive enzyme of molecular weight (MW) 200,000 and an endo-beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase H resistant but endo-beta-acetylglucosaminidase F sensitive enzyme of MW 400,000. In contrast, most of HM2 consisted of a doublet of MW 200,000 - 210,000 that was endo-beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase H sensitive. The intestine of the suckling rat, therefore, contains two soluble maltase-glucoamylase fractions, with a major portion of high mannose rather than complex oligosaccharides.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

A new entry into the portfolio of α-glucosidase inhibitors as potent therapeutics for type 2 diabetes: Design,bioevaluation and one-pot multi-component synthesis of diamine-bridged coumarinyl oxadiazole conjugates

Diabetes mellitus (DM), a chronic multifarious metabolic disorder resulting from impaired glucose homeostasis has become one of the most challenging diseases with severe life threat to public health. The inhibition of α-glucosidase, a key carbohydrate hydrolyzing enzyme, could serve as one of the effective methodology in both preventing and treating diabetes through controlling the postprandial glucose levels and suppressing postprandial hyperglycemia. In this context, three series of diamine-bridged bis-coumarinyl oxadiazole conjugates were designed and synthesized by one-pot multi-component methodology. The synthesized conjugates (4a–j, 5a–j, 6a–j) were evaluated as potential inhibitors of glucosidases. Compound 6f containing 4,4′-oxydianiline linker was identified as the lead and selective inhibitor of α-glucosidase enzyme with an IC₅₀ value of 0.07 ± 0.001 μM (acarbose: IC₅₀ = 38.2 ± 0.12 μM). This inhibition efficacy was ∼545-fold higher compared to the standard drug. Compound 6f was also emerged as the lead molecule against intestinal maltase-glucoamylase with good inhibition strength (IC₅₀ = 0.04 ± 0.02 μM) compared to acarbose (IC₅₀ = 0.06 ± 0.01 μM). Against β-glucosidase enzyme, compound 6 g was noted as the lead inhibitor with IC₅₀ value of 0.08 ± 0.002 μM. Michaelis–Menten kinetic experiments were performed to explore the mechanism of inhibition. Molecular docking studies of the synthesized library of hybrid structures against glucosidase enzyme were performed to describe ligand-protein interactions at molecular level that provided an insight into the biological properties of the analyzed compounds. The results suggested that the inhibitors could be stabilized in the active site through the formation of multiple interactions with catalytic residues in a cooperative fashion. In addition, strong binding interactions of the compounds with the amino acid residues were effective for the successful identification of α-glucosidase inhibitors.     

The mode of anchoring and precursor forms of sucrase-isomaltase and maltase-glucoamylase in chicken intestinal brush-border membrane. Phylogenetic implications

Chicken intestinal sucrase-isomaltase and maltase-glucoamylase have been isolated in their intact form by detergent solubilization and characterized as to their subunit composition and mode of anchoring in the brush-border membrane. Both are heterodimeric enzyme complexes composed of two subunits each of approximately 140 and 130 kDa. Contrary to the mammalian sucrase-isomaltase, chicken isomaltase was identified as the smaller of the two subunits. As was shown by hydrophobic labeling, only one of the two subunits in each heterodimer is anchored in the bilayer, the smaller 130 kDa isomaltase subunit of the sucrase-isomaltase complex, and the larger 140 kDa subunit of the maltase-glucoamylase complex. Both preparations contain a high-molecular weight polypeptide of approximately 250 kDa which in the case of sucrase-isomaltase could be identified by peptide mapping as a single-chain precursor not (yet) proteolytically processed to the final heterodimer. These first data on the mode of membrane anchoring of non-mammalian glycosidases indicate that they are synthesized, inserted into the membrane, and processed in ways similar to the mammalian enzymes. The fundamental unity between avian and mammalian sucrase-isomaltases suggests that the partial gene duplication of an ancestral isomaltase gene and the subsequent mutation of one of the active sites resulting in pro-sucrase-isomaltase has occurred prior to the separation of mammals from reptiles, i.e. more than 300 million years ago.     

Prospecting for Novel Plant-Derived Molecules of Rauvolfia serpentina as Inhibitors of Aldose Reductase,a Potent Drug Target for Diabetes and Its Complications

Aldose Reductase (AR) is implicated in the development of secondary complications of diabetes, providing an interesting target for therapeutic intervention. Extracts of Rauvolfia serpentina, a medicinal plant endemic to the Himalayan mountain range, have been known to be effective in alleviating diabetes and its complications. In this study, we aim to prospect for novel plant-derived inhibitors from R. serpentina and to understand structural basis of their interactions. An extensive library of R. serpentina molecules was compiled and computationally screened for inhibitory action against AR. The stability of complexes, with docked leads, was verified using molecular dynamics simulations. Two structurally distinct plant-derived leads were identified as inhibitors: indobine and indobinine. Further, using these two leads as templates, 16 more leads were identified through ligand-based screening of their structural analogs, from a small molecules database. Thus, we obtained plant-derived indole alkaloids, and their structural analogs, as potential AR inhibitors from a manually curated dataset of R. serpentina molecules. Indole alkaloids reported herein, as a novel structural class unreported hitherto, may provide better insights for designing potential AR inhibitors with improved efficacy and fewer side effects.     

Nouveaux marqueurs dans l’homéostasie glucidique : physiologie et physiopathologie

The term diabetes mellitus describes a metabolic disorder resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. People with diabetes are at increased risk of cardiovascular, peripheral and cerebrovascular disease. In consequence, it is important to better understand early step in this disease in order to prevent complications. Incretine hormones are defined as intestinal hormones released in response to nutrient ingestion, which potentiate the glucose-induced insulin response. The incretine effect is mainly caused by two peptide hormones, glucose-dependent insulin releasing polypeptide (GIP) and glucagons-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). Analogs of GLP-1 and dipeptidyl-peptidase IV (DPP-IV) inhibitors are actually used as antidiabetic drugs. Adiponectin is an adipokine, which is expressed in adipose tissue and is thought to play an important role in glucose metabolism. Hypoadiponectinemia was related to obesity, insulin-resistance and as a risk factor of diabetes, cardiovascular events and death. Plasmatic quantification of GLP-1 and adiponectin should improve insulin-resistance diagnosis and diabetes prevention.