Selection of bedded and unbedded areas by pigs in relation to environmental temperature and behaviour

In 2 experiments, groups of 3 pigs aged 4–8 weeks were given access to 2 sides of an experimental pen, one with straw bedding and one with a bare concrete floor. When resting or feeding, the 12 groups in Experiment 1 showed no consistent preference for the bedded or unbedded side. When active, the pigs were more often on the bedded side, especially at times when fresh straw was provided. The quantity of straw had no effect on these trends.In the second experiment, 10 groups tested at an ambient temperature of 18–21°C strongly selected the bedded side for resting, while those tested at 25–27°C usually selected the bare concrete. Feeding and general activity showed no clear relation to floor type. At the cooler temperatures, most groups dunged on the side that was not used for resting and feeding, but this structuring of the living space was not so apparent at the higher temperatures.The results indicate that the animals' preference for a bedded or concrete floor depends strongly on temperature. Under warm conditions, straw is likely to benefit pigs because of its recreational value but not as a means of improving comfort in the resting area.     

Deprivation of straw bedding alters PGF(2alpha)-induced nesting behaviour in female pigs

Sows are highly motivated to build a maternal nest on the day preceding parturition. A model for nest building has been established in pigs, in which exogenously administered prostaglandin F(2alpha) (PGF(2alpha)) may be used to elicit nesting behaviour in cyclic, pseudopregnant and pregnant pigs. The aim of this experiment was to examine the effects of deprivation of straw bedding on PGF(2alpha)-induced nest building in pseudopregnant Large White gilts. Oestradiol valerate injections (5 mg/day) were given on days 11-15 of the oestrous cycle to induce pseudopregnancy. The pigs were housed individually in a pen (2.8x1.7 m) and provided with 2-kg fresh straw each day. On the test day, on day 46 or 47 of pseudopregnancy, half of the pigs were deprived of straw (substrate effect) and they were injected intramuscularly with saline or 15 mg of PGF(2alpha) (Lutalyse, Upjohn) (treatment effect) allocated in a Latin-square design. Behaviour was recorded onto video tapes for 1 h either side of treatment for analysis using a computerised event recorder. PGF(2alpha)-treated pigs housed in bare or strawed pens showed significantly higher frequencies of pawing and rooting, and stood for longer than saline-treated controls. This treatment effect has been previously shown to be comparable to pre-partum nest building. The removal of straw significantly reduced the frequency of pawing and the duration of rooting by PGF(2alpha)-treated pigs. The results demonstrate that nesting behaviour can be initiated by exogenously administered PGF(2alpha) and is further modified by the provision of straw. This suggests that PGF(2alpha)-induced nesting behaviour is subject to environmental feedback.     

Effects of fermentable starch and straw-enriched housing on energy partitioning of growing pigs

Both dietary fermentable carbohydrates and the availability of straw bedding potentially affect activity patterns and energy utilisation in pigs. The present study aimed to investigate the combined effects of straw bedding and fermentable carbohydrates (native potato starch) on energy partitioning in growing pigs. In a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement, 16 groups of 12 pigs (approximately 25 kg) were assigned to either barren housing or housing on straw bedding, and to native or pregelatinised potato starch included in the diet. Pigs were fed at approximately 2.5 times maintenance. Nitrogen and energy balances were measured per group during a 7-day experimental period, which was preceded by a 30-day adaptation period. Heat production and physical activity were measured during 9-min intervals. The availability of straw bedding increased both metabolisable energy (ME) intake and total heat production (P < 0.001). Housing conditions did not affect total energy retention, but pigs on straw bedding retained more energy as protein (P < 0.01) and less as fat (P < 0.05) than barren-housed pigs. Average daily gain (P < 0.001), ME intake (P < 0.001) and energy retention (P < 0.01) were lower in pigs on the native potato starch diet compared to those on the pregelatinised potato starch diet. Pigs on the pregelatinised potato starch diet showed larger fluctuations in heat production and respiration quotient over the 24-h cycle than pigs on the native potato starch diet, and a higher activity-related energy expenditure. The effect of dietary starch type on activity-related heat production depended, however, on housing type (P < 0.05). In barren housing, activity-related heat production was less affected by starch type (16.1% and 13.7% of total heat production on the pregelatinised and native potato starch diet, respectively) than in straw-enriched housing (21.1% and 15.0% of the total heat production on the pregelatinised and native potato starch diet, respectively). In conclusion, the present study shows that the availability both of straw bedding and of dietary starch type, fermentable or digestible, affects energy utilisation and physical activity of pigs. The effects of housing condition on protein and fat deposition suggest that environmental enrichment with long straw may result in leaner pigs. The lower energy expenditure on the physical activity of pigs on the native potato starch diet, which was the most obvious in straw-housed pigs, likely reflects a decrease in foraging behaviour related to a more gradual supply of energy from fermentation processes.     

Effect of straw amount on feed intake and weight gain in growing pigs housed in pens with partly slatted floor

The provision of straw to pigs kept in conventional pens with concrete floor improves animal welfare, but the effects of straw on pigs’ performance are unclear. In two steps, we investigated the relationship between amount of straw provided to pigs and measures of performance in a set-up maintaining constant space allowance and controlled room temperature. From approximately 30- to 85-kg BW, pigs were housed in groups of 18 in pens (5.48 m × 2.48 m) with concrete floor (1/3 solid, 1/3 drained and 1/3 slatted). The pens were cleaned manually twice a week, and the designated amount of fresh uncut wheat straw was provided daily onto the solid part of the floor. In the first step, 48 pens were assigned to 10-, 500- or 1000-g straw per pig per day, while in the second step, 90 pens were assigned to 10-, 80-, 150-, 220-, 290-, 360-, 430- or 500-g straw per pig per day. Pigs were weighed at the start of the experimental period at approximately 30 kg and again at approximately 85-kg BW. The average daily gain increased 8.1 g (SEM 17) for every extra 100-g straw added daily (P < 0.001) resulting in 40 g higher average daily gain with 500 compared to 10-g straw per pig per day. The feed conversion ratio was not affected by the amount of straw provided, as the feed intake tended to be higher with increasing amounts of straw. Thus, between 10 and 500 g, the more straw provided, the higher the daily weight gain. As the nutritional value of straw is considered minimal, this result is likely due to improved gut health from the increasing amounts of straw ingested and increased feed intake due to increased stimulation of exploratory behaviour with increasing amounts of straw available, or a combination of these. The observed tendency for a higher feed intake supports this suggestion, but studies are needed to establish the impact of these two contributing factors.     

The effect of long or chopped straw on pig behaviour

In the EU, pigs must have permanent access to manipulable materials such as straw, rope, wood, etc. Long straw can fulfil this function, but can increase labour requirements for cleaning pens, and result in problems with blocked slatted floors and slurry systems. Chopped straw might be more practical, but what is the effect on pigs’ behaviour of using chopped straw instead of long straw? Commercial pigs in 1/3 slatted, 2/3 solid pens of 15 pigs were provided with either 100 g/pig per day of long straw (20 pens) or of chopped straw (19 pens). Behavioural observations were made of three focal pigs per pen (one from each of small, medium and large weight tertiles) for one full day between 0600 and 2300 h at each of ~40 and ~80 kg. The time spent rooting/investigating overall (709 s/pig per hour at 40 kg to 533 s/pig per hour at 80 kg), or directed to the straw/solid floor (497 s/pig per hour at 40 kg to 343 s/pig per hour at 80 kg), was not affected by straw length but reduced with age. Time spent investigating other pigs (83 s/pig per hour at 40 kg), the slatted floor (57 s/pig per hour) or pen fixtures (21 s/pig per hour) was not affected by age or straw length. Aggressive behaviour was infrequent, but lasted about twice as long in pens with chopped straw (2.3 s/pig per hour at 40 kg) compared with pens with long straw (1.0 s/pig per hour at 40 kg, P=0.060). There were no significant effects of straw length on tail or ear lesions, but shoulders were significantly more likely to have minor scratches with chopped straw (P=0.031), which may reflect the higher levels of aggression. Smaller pigs showed more rooting/investigatory behaviour, and in particular directed towards the straw/solid floor and the slatted floor than their larger pen-mates. Females exhibited more straw and pen fixture-directed behaviour than males. There were no effects of pig size or sex on behaviour directed towards other pigs. In summary, pigs spent similar amounts of time interacting with straw/solid floor when long and chopped straw were provided, and most aspects of pig-directed behaviour and injuries were not affected by straw length. There was an increase in pigs with minor shoulder lesions with chopped straw, perhaps because of increased aggression. The use of chopped straw as an enrichment material for pigs warrants further investigation in larger and more detailed studies.     

Influence of different types of environmental enrichment on the behaviour of finishing pigs in two different housing systems: 3. Hanging toy versus rootable toy of the same material

This study aimed to assess the effects of (1) environmental enrichment with either straw bedding or a plastic toy and (2) the way in which the plastic toy was presented on the behaviour of finishing pigs in two different housing systems. One thousand and twenty four (Large White × Landrace) × Large White pigs were housed contemporarily in either a straw-based (ST) or fully slatted (FS) building from 35 kg to slaughter at 104 kg. In each building, half of the pens received additional environmental enrichment in the form of a hanging plastic toy. The remaining pens in the ST house were enriched only by the straw bedding. In the FS house, the remaining pens were provided with a rootable toy of the same plastic material presented on the floor of the pen. There was no significant effect of housing system on the level of manipulation of the hanging toy. Within the FS system, the level of manipulation of the hanging toy tended to be higher than that of the plastic toy presented on the floor (P = 0.052). Neither form of additional environmental enrichment provided a comparable level of occupation to that of straw bedding. In the absence of straw, more investigatory behaviours were directed towards both pen-mates (P < 0.001) and pen components (P < 0.001). Further study is required to identify functional forms of environmental enrichment in slatted systems to occupy pigs and prevent them from performing adverse behaviours.     

Animal and management factors influencing grower and finisher pig performance and efficiency in European systems: a meta-analysis

A meta-analysis on the effects of management and animal-based factors on the performance and feed efficiency of growing pigs can provide information on single factor and interaction effects absent in individual studies. This study analysed the effects of such factors on average daily gain (ADG), feed intake (FI) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) of grower and finisher pigs. The multivariate models identified significant effects of: (1) bedding (P<0.01), stage of growth (P<0.001) and the interaction bedding×lysine (P<0.001) on ADG. ADG was higher on straw compared with no bedding (710 v. 605 g/day). (2) FI was significantly affected by stage of growth (P<0.01), bedding (P<0.01), group composition (P<0.05), group size (P<0.01), feed CP content (P<0.01), ambient temperature (P<0.01) and the interaction between floor space and feed energy content (P<0.001). Pigs housed on straw had a lower FI in comparison with those without (1.44 v. 2.04 kg/day); a higher FI was seen for pigs separated by gender in comparison with mixed groups (2.05 v. 1.65 kg/day); FI had a negative linear relationship with group size, the CP content of the feed and ambient temperature. (3) Stage of growth (P<0.001), feed CP (P<0.001) and lysine content (P<0.001), ambient temperature (P<0.001) and feed crude fibre (CF) content (P<0.01) significantly affected FCR; there were no significant interactions between any factors on this trait. There was an improvement in FCR at higher ambient temperatures, increased feed CP and lysine content, but a deterioration of FCR at higher CF contents. For ADG, the interaction of bedding×lysine was caused by pigs housed without bedding (straw) having higher ADG when on a feed lower in lysine, whereas those with bedding had a higher ADG when on a feed higher in lysine. Interaction effects on FI were caused by animals with the least amount of floor space having a higher FI when given a feed with a low metabolisable energy (ME) content, in contrast to all other pigs, which showed a higher FI with increased ME content. The meta-analysis confirmed the significant effect of several well-known factors on the performance and efficiency of grower and finisher pigs, the effects of some less established ones and, importantly, the interactions between such factors.     

The effect of group housing on feeding patterns and social behaviour of previously individually housed growing pigs

Group housed pigs make less frequent feeder visits of longer duration, and eat at a faster rate than pigs housed individually. They also have lower growth rates which may be due to elevated stress levels resulting from changes in the concentrations of hormones, such as cortisol and adrenaline associated with aggression and social stress. The aim of this experiment was to investigate the effects of grouping on feeding pattern, time budgeting and the social behaviour of pigs kept as individuals from weaning until grouping. In total, 12 Large WhitexLandrace male pigs (four pigs per block) mean (+/-S.E.) start weight 22.5+/-0.7kg were housed individually for 3 weeks (Period 1) after which in two replicates (Blocks 1 and 3), pigs were combined into a group of four (Period 2) before being returned to individual housing for a further 3 weeks (Period 3). In Block 2, the four pigs remained as individuals across periods but were moved between pens at the end of Periods 1 and 2 to account for any pen effects. Feeding pattern and food intake were recorded throughout and pigs were weighed three times a week. Video recordings and live behavioural observations were made to record time budgets and social behaviour. Grouped pigs made less visits to the feeder in Period 2 than when they were housed individually in Periods 1 (P<0.001) and 3 (P<0.01). Visit duration was longer in Period 2 than in Periods 1 (P<0.01) and 3 (P<0.05). Food intake and weight gain were greater in Period 3 than in Periods 1 and 2 (P<0.001 and P<0.01, respectively). There were no significant effects of moving pigs between pens in Block 2 on feeding behaviour and timebudgets. In Period 2, grouped pigs slept more (P<0.01) and spent less time feeding (P<0.01) and rooting (P<0.01) than in Periods 1 and 3. The frequency of aggression decreased over time from mixing (P<0.001). Possible explanations for the changes in feeding behaviour when pigs are moved from individual to group housing are competition, group cohesion, or that the high frequency of feeder visits when the pigs are housed individually is a consequence of a lack of social stimulation. Of these different possibilities, the results suggest that group cohesion is most likely to have been causal in the observed changes in feeding behaviour.     

Comparison of video recording and a portable electronic device for measuring the feeding behaviour of individually housed dairy goats

A detailed knowledge of chewing behaviour is important in understanding the factors that can affect digestive function in high producing ruminants. The aim of this study was to compare chewing behaviour either measured with a portable automatic system (APEC) which records jaw movements or obtained by scan sampling video analysis in 12 individually housed dairy goats. One hour and daily time-intervals were used for the analysis. APEC and video showed better agreement for 1 h than for daily time-intervals but a very high individual variability was observed for all the parameters measured. Daily duration of rumination seemed to be assessed better by the APEC than by the video because it is sometimes difficult to determine if the goats are resting or ruminating on the video. Daily duration of intake was however assessed better by the video because the automatic recorder interpreted all oral behaviours as intake. However, total chewing time is directly related to the amount of saliva produced which an important factor in ruminant nutrition. The APEC allows continuous recording of activity independently of the animal's position in the pen or in a group or at pasture where animals cannot be filmed, however the device can be easily damaged by the animals. Video cannot be damaged by the animals but it can be difficult to determine the animal's activity if the animal is lying-down or not facing the camera, or in a dark part of its pen. Both systems were relevant to measure chewing behaviour of stall housed dairy goats, and to study the daily time-budget of feeding behaviour but results have to be interpreted carefully.     

Effects of cage beddings on microsomal oxidative enzymes in rat liver

The purpose of the present studies was to evaluate the effects of some commercially available cage beddings on rat liver microsomal cytochrome P-450-dependent drug-metabolizing enzyme, ethylmorphine N-demethylase, and the carcinogen-metabolizing enzyme, benzo(a)pyrene hydroxylase. Sprague-Dawley rats were housed in cages containing cedar chip, corncob or heat-treated pinewood bedding for 3 weeks. Control rats were housed in cages on wire bottom floors containing no bedding material. Rats housed in cages containing cedar chip showed 18, 46 and 49% increases in liver cytochrome P-450 content, ethylmorphine N-demethylase and benzo(a)pyrene hydroxylase activities, respectively. The liver enzyme activities of rats housed in cages containing corncob bedding were similar to those obtained with control rats. In contrast, the pinewood-bedded rats showed a 21% decrease in ethylmorphine N-demethylase activity without affecting cytochrome P-450 content and benzo(a)pyrene hydroxylase activity. Hexobarbital-induced sleep times of the variously bedded rats were similar to those of control animals. These data suggest that the commercial bedding materials differ in their abilities to affect liver microsomal enzymes. Thus, interlaboratory variability in basal enzyme activities reported in the literature may be partly due to bedding materials used in the animal's cages.     

Behaviour of liquid-fed growing pigs provided with straw in various amounts and frequencies

Straw possesses many characteristics that make it attractive to pigs and can therefore be effective in preventing negative penmate-directed behaviours. However, straw is difficult to handle in current vacuum slurry systems under most commercial conditions and can therefore only be used in limited amounts. To occupy pigs effectively, straw must remain attractive to pigs throughout the whole day; hence, have a certain degree of novelty. We investigated the penmate-directed behaviour of liquid-fed growing pigs in a production herd, assigned to five experimental treatments: 1×25, 1×50, 1×100, 2×50 and 4×25 g of chopped straw/pig per day, with 20 replicates of each treatment (pen was regarded as experimental unit). Behaviour was observed at two different growth stages; ~40 and 80 kg live weight of the pigs. Activity and exploratory behaviour directed at penmates, straw, pen components and the slatted floor were registered continuously for 15 min of each hour during day time (0600 to 2200 h) by use of video observation of three focal pigs per pen. The pigs were active for about one-third of the day corresponding to ~5 h/day. Of the active time, an average of 7% (35 min) was spent on penmate-directed behaviour. The pigs were more active and increased their straw-directed behaviour when provided with 100 g straw/pig per day compared with 25 and 50 g (P<0.001). However, penmate-directed behaviour was not reduced with an increased amount of straw (P>0.05), and there was no effect on pigs’ behaviour when straw provision was increased per day (P>0.05). Pigs became less active and reduced their straw-directed activities when their weight increased from 40 to 80 kg live weight (P<0.001), but the amount of penmate-directed behaviour was similar (P>0.05). Further, the residual straw results indicated that perhaps a more frequent straw provision could help establish a more even level of fresh available straw during the day. However, the frequent straw provision did not occupy pigs more than one daily allocation did. In conclusion, there was no difference in penmate-directed behaviour of the pigs when given 25 or 50 g of straw/pig per day compared with 100 g of straw/pig per day, nor were there any difference when 100 g of straw/pig per day was provided more frequently.     

The effect of different housing conditions on behavioural and adrenocortical reactions in veal calves

Veal calves were housed either tethered indoors on slatted floorings or loose in groups of eight in a semi-open barn with straw bedding. Six weeks after arrival at the station the calves were submitted to a 10-min open-field session in either the same environment as the one in which they were housed or in the alternative environment. During this session, activity, latency time to first movement and duration of immobility were scored and blood samples were taken for cortisol determination before and after the session. In both instances, the tethered calves exhibited higher activity scores and shorter periods of immobility. Plasma cortisol levels were significantly affected by testing conditions but not by housing conditions, i.e. plasma cortisol levels increased more when the animals were tested in a different environment from the one in which they were housed. Adrenal cortex response to repeated blood sampling and to ACTH injections was found to be significantly higher in tethered calves. These results show that housing conditions strongly influenced the behaviour and endocrine activity of the calves. The dynamics of these changes need further study.     

A technique for the measurement of synchronised feeding in miniature pigs: determination by means of Walsh - Fourier spectral analysis

In order to investigate feeding synchronization in miniature pigs, a computer-controlled laboratory setup has been developed, recording the feeding behavior of two pigs at a time for weeks. Since, this setup delivers time series with a binary data structure, and thus Fourier-Spectral analysis is difficult to perform, Walsh - Fourier Spectral analysis for ordinal or binary data was utilized. Synchronicity between pigs housed together was estimated by coherency values, determined for the highest sequences of the Walsh - Fourier power spectra. Feeding behavior was recorded in 12 pigs (26 - 50 kg) housed in pairs, in separate, but adjacent pens. Pigs were conditioned to operate feeders and feeding was recorded for two weeks. Pigs housed adjacent to one another showed an overlap in the dominant sequencies which was confirmed by high corresponding coherency values. Furthermore, pairs of pigs were matched according to age, weight and gender, and combined by chance. Compared to these pairings, coherencies were higher and more consistent in pigs housed in adjacent pens. If the data structure is binary, Walsh - Fourier Spectral analysis utilizing coherencies as a measure of correlation between the spectra has been shown to be a useful tool in the investigation of behavioral synchronization.     

Influence of environmental temperature on PGF(2alpha)-induced nest building in female pigs

Domestic pigs build a maternal nest in the day preceding parturition. We have shown that prostaglandin F(2alpha) (PGF(2alpha)) induces nest building behaviour in non-pregnant pigs. The aim of this experiment was to examine the effects of different environmental temperatures on PGF(2alpha)-induced nest building. Data were collected from 9 Large White (LW) and 10 Large Black (LB) 8-9-month-old nulliparous sows (gilts). The pigs were housed in social groups between experiments and tested individually in pens (1.8mx1.8m) containing straw, within an environmentally controlled chamber. Pigs were habituated to the testing pens (maintained at 17 degrees C) and tested once at each of three temperatures (low, 5 degrees C; moderate, 17 degrees C; high, 30 degrees C). During testing the temperature of the chamber was adjusted at 09.00h and had reached set point by10.00h. The pigs were injected intramuscularly with 3ml saline at 10.30h and 0.1mg/kg PGF(2alpha) (Lutalyse, Upjohn) at 11.30h. Behaviour was scored for 1h after treatment with saline and 1h after treatment with PGF(2alpha) using one/zero sampling from video recordings. Nest building behaviour (rooting, pawing and gathering straw) was induced by PGF(2alpha) at all temperatures in both LW and LB breeds. There was a significant increase in rooting behaviours with decreasing temperature. No significant effects of temperature were found on the scores for gather or paw. The pigs spent more time lying down at the high compared to the low temperature after both saline and PGF(2alpha) treatment. Other behaviours unrelated to nest building but induced by PGF(2alpha), such as scratching, were unaffected by temperature. The results show that the nest building behaviour of non-pregnant pigs can be induced by exogenous PGF(2alpha) treatment, and that some, but not all, aspects of PGF(2alpha)-induced nest building (rooting but not pawing or gathering) are altered by environmental temperature.     

The use of dirty bedding for detection of murine pathogens in sentinel mice

Sentinel Swiss (CD-1) mice, housed without filter bonnets, were seronegative for mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) for 8 consecutive months in an experimental colony of CD-1 mice. MHV titers had been detected sporadically in sentinel mice housed in this colony during a 2 year period. In an effort to determine whether MHV was still present in the colony, two methods of exposing sentinel mice to an animal room environment were compared under routine husbandry practices. Eight cages (12 mice per cage; 2 cages per rack) of experimental virus antibody free sentinel mice, housed without filter bonnets, were placed on the bottom shelf of 4 of 12 racks in the room. Twice each week, four cages of sentinel mice received a composite sample of dirty bedding (bedding used previously by mice in the room). The remaining four cages of experimental sentinels received fresh non-used bedding. Sentinel mice were bled at monthly intervals for MHV serology. After 4 months, mice from two cages which received dirty bedding seroconverted to MHV and mice from one cage were positive for Myobia musculi (mites). Three weeks later, all four cages of mice which received dirty bedding were positive for MHV and three were positive for mites. In contrast, only two of four cages of mice which received fresh bedding were positive for MHV and all were negative for mites. These findings indicate the importance of exposing sentinel mice to dirty bedding and that MHV and mites may go undetected for several months in a mouse colony when the incidence levels are low where standard sanitation procedures are used.     

Preference of guinea pigs for bedding materials: wood shavings versus paper cutting sheet.

The preference of guinea pigs for bedding materials, wood shavings (WS) or paper cutting sheets (PS), was studied. Animals aged 8 weeks and 20 weeks showed a similar behaviour pattern during 30 min in the light, preferring WS to PS regardless of ages. Over both light and dark periods for 24 h, guinea pigs apparently preferred WS in the light, spending much more time resting in them than in PS. In the dark, the border-crossing was significantly more frequent than in the light, and the staying time was rather longer in PS than WS. The results suggest that guinea pigs prefer different bedding materials under light and dark conditions.     

Suitability of feeding and chewing time for estimation of feed intake in dairy cows

Monitoring of feeding and rumination behaviour can provide useful information for dairy herd management. The feeding behaviour of dairy cows can be recorded by different techniques, such as video cameras, weighing troughs or chewing sensors. Among feeding characteristics, individual feed intake of cows is of utmost interest, but as weighing troughs have high space and cost requirements they are used primarily in research studies. The objective of the present study was to evaluate whether records on feeding time or chewing activity or a combination of both contain enough information to estimate feed intake with sufficient accuracy. Feed intake and feeding time per cow were recorded by means of weighing troughs. Concurrently, chewing activity of seven cows was recorded by MSR-ART pressure sensors during five to eight measuring days per cow. Feeding and chewing behaviour were evaluated in time slots (1 min) and additionally assigned to feeding bouts for further analysis. The 1 min time slots were classified into feeding/no feeding or chewing/no chewing by the two systems, and agreement was found in 92.2% of the records. On average, cows spent 270±39 min/day at the feeding troughs and chewed 262±48 min/day. The average fresh matter intake (FMI) was 49.6±5.1 kg/day. Feed intake was divided into 9.7 bouts/day during which cows fed in average 27.8±21.7 min/bout and chewed 27.0±23.1 min/bout. The correlation between FMI and feeding time was r=0.891 and between FMI and chewing time r=0.780 overall cows. Hence, both systems delivered suitable information for estimating feed intake.     

Review: Drinking water for liquid-fed pigs

Liquid feeding has the potential to provide pigs with sufficient water to remain hydrated and prevent prolonged thirst. However, lack of permanent access to fresh water prevents animals from drinking when they are thirsty. Moreover, individual differences between pigs in a pen may result in uneven distribution of the water provided by the liquid feed, leading to some pigs being unable to meet their water requirements. In this review, we look at the need for and provision of water for liquid-fed pigs in terms of their production performance, behaviour, health and welfare. We highlight factors which may lead to water ingestion above or below requirements. Increases in the need for water may be caused by numerous factors such as morbidity, ambient temperature or competition within the social group, emphasising the necessity of permanent access to water as also prescribed in EU legislation. The drinkers can be the target of redirected behaviour in response to feed restriction or in the absence of rooting materials, thereby generating water losses. The method of water provision and drinker design is critical to ensure easy access to water regardless of the pig’s physiological state, and to limit the amount of water used, which does not benefit the pig.     

Increasing daily feeding occasions in restricted feeding strategies does not improve performance or well being of fattening pigs

Background  

The natural feeding behaviour of the pig is searching for feed by rooting activities throughout the day; self-feeding pigs randomly space their eating and drinking periods throughout the day consuming ten to twelve meals per day. Pigs in conventional fattening pig production are normally fed 2–3 times daily with the feed consumed within 15 minutes. The aim of this study was to determine if more frequent feedings could improve the performance of conventionally kept fattening pigs.     

Preferences of sheep for different types of pen flooring

In countries where the climate makes it practical with indoor housing during cold periods of the year and access to straw is limited, e.g. Iceland and Norway, housing of sheep on slats or expanded metal floors is common practice. However, European regulations for organic farming require that all animals should have access to a lying area with solid floor. The objective of this experiment was to investigate sheep preferences for different types of pen flooring.

In Experiment 1, a total number of 16 ewes, divided into four groups, were subjected to four different treatments. In each treatment, the ewes could choose between two lying areas with one of the following flooring materials: (1) solid wood versus rubber mats, (2) expanded metal versus solid wood, (3) solid wood versus straw, (4) expanded metal versus straw. In Experiment 2, a total number of eight ewes were individually subjected to the same treatments, first fully coated and then sheared. The ewes were video taped for 48 h in each treatment period.

In Experiment 1, the first animal that lay down after feeding preferred to lie down on straw or wood to expanded metal and straw to wooden floor (P < 0.05), but this first choice did not reflect the overall flooring preference for unsheared ewes. The groups of unsheared ewes showed no significant preferences for lying area.

In Experiment 2, single housed, unsheared ewes preferred wooden floor to rubber mats (P < 0.05), and tended to prefer expanded metal floor to straw (P = 0.08). There were no significant preferences in the two other treatments. After shearing, the ewes’ preferred wooden floor to expanded metal (P < 0.05), straw to wooden floor (P < 0.05), and straw to expanded metal floor (P< 0.0001). There were no significant preferences between rubber mats and wooden floor. Mean lying time (% of observations) for all treatments was 64.7% for unsheared ewes, and there were no significant differences between treatments. Mean lying time (% of observations) for all treatments the first 2–3 days after shearing was 43%. Significant differences in pre-shearing versus post-shearing lying times (% of observations) existed when the ewes were housed in pens with no straw (P < 0.05), this was not the case when the ewes had access to straw.

In conclusion, sheared but not unsheared ewes, preferred softer floors with low thermal conductivity (straw and wood). The less dramatically reduction in lying time (% of observations) after shearing when the ewes had access to straw, suggest that access to straw the first weeks after shearing may improve animal welfare.