Family Traditions for Mahouts of Asian Elephants

ABSTRACT

The mahout and elephant relationship is one of the oldest human—animal relationships, possibly beginning as far back as 5,000 years ago. Valued for their assistance in war and work, elephants were trained and managed using methods described in ancient Indian texts. The lifelong job of mahouts historically had a long apprenticeship, and was passed from father to son. In 1973, when the government in Karnataka, India, assumed ownership of the maharajah's elephants, Hindu and Muslim mahouts with their elephants were relocated to national forests and became employees of the Forest Department. Members of honey-gathering tribes (called tribals) began to be offered government jobs as mahouts. To assess the current patterns of family traditions with elephants among mahouts living within Nagarahole National Park, India, sixteen mahouts and four young assistants were interviewed, representing Hindu, Muslim, and tribal families. In all three cultures, almost all had been introduced to elephants by a father or other male relative; the mahouts' sons expected to be mahouts. Mahouts' sons regularly assisted and played an essential role in the management of female elephants. No examples of injuries to children were mentioned by mahouts, yet some mahouts and villagers had been killed or seriously injured by elephants. Family tradition played a major role for Hindus, Muslims, and tribals in the decision to work with elephants. The semi-captivity of, and traditional, structured work activities with, Asian elephants may afford some possible improvements for their welfare and human—elephant conflicts.     

Assessing the effects of elephant foraging on the structure and diversity of an Afrotropical forest

African forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) are ecosystem engineers that browse and damage large quantities of vegetation during their foraging and movement. Though elephant trail networks and clearings are conspicuous features of many African forests, the consequences of elephant foraging for forest structure and diversity are poorly documented. In this study in northeastern Gabon, we compare stem size, stem density, proportional damage, species diversity, and species relative abundance of seedlings and saplings in the vicinity of seven tree species that produce elephant-preferred fruits (“elephant trees”) relative to control trees that do not. Across 34 survey trees, with a combined census area of 2.04 ha, we recorded data on 26,128 woody stems in three sizes classes. Compared with control trees, the area around elephant trees had the following: (a) a significantly greater proportion of damaged seedlings and a marginally greater proportion of damaged saplings (with 82% and 24% greater odds of damage, respectively); (b) no significant difference in stem density or species diversity; and (c) a significantly greater relative abundance of seedlings of elephant tree species. Increasing distance away from focal elephant trees was associated with significantly reduced sapling stem damage, significantly increased sapling stem density, and significantly increased sapling species diversity. Considered in sum, our results suggest that elephants can affect the structure and diversity of Afrotropical forests through their foraging activities, with some variation based on location and plant size class. Developing a more complete understanding of elephants’ ecological effects will require continued research, ideally with manipulative experiments.     

The savanna ecology of Kidepo Valley National Park

(1) Food habits of elephant and giraffe were recorded in short sample periods over several years using the feeding minutes technique. (2) Twelve species of common plants were collected on these occasions, separated into their main parts and analysed chemically. (3) Damage to trees was also recorded at intervals. (4) Fifty-nine species of plant were eaten by elephant. During wet months their diet was predominantly grass but during dry months woody vegetation became more important. Giraffe were observed eating from thirty-nine species of plant which were almost entirely browse throughout the year. At least eighteen of these species were also eaten by elephant. (5) Three of the browse species most important to giraffe were also important to elephant in dry seasons. In the driest month the species eaten by giraffe formed more than two-thirds of the observed diet of elephants. (6) Chemical analyses of plants show that browse leaves had a higher level of protein, fat and minerals than most other plants. (7) The trunk of an elephant and the tongue of a giraffe are highly sensitive organs which permit food selection. Elephant in particular appeared to alter their food habits seasonally and it is suggested that this may be an attempt to obtain a balanced intake of nutrients. (8) Due to the effect of elephant and other agencies there is an accelerating decline in Acacia gerrardii woodlands. Browsing and fire are independently preventing their regeneration. (9) The extensive overlap of food requirements on preferred but diminishing browse resources implies potential if not already existing competition between elephant and giraffe. (See Part III.)     

普洱市亚洲象栖息地适宜度评价

亚洲象(Elephas maximus)属于我国Ⅰ级保护动物,在中国仅分布于云南省西双版纳国家级自然保护区、普洱市的思茅区、澜沧县和江城县,以及临沧南滚河国家级自然保护区。将普洱全境作为研究区域,利用野外调查数据,结合遥感与地理信息系统技术,运用生态位因子分析(ENFA)模型对普洱市亚洲象的栖息地适宜度进行了评价,并预测了适宜栖息地的分布。发现:普洱市亚洲象栖息地的边际值为0.991,表明亚洲象在普洱市境内对环境变量的选择不是随机的;耐受值为0.315,表明亚洲象在普洱市境内生态位较窄,受环境条件的制约。根据模型计算得到的栖息地适宜度指数,将普洱市的亚洲象栖息地分为最适栖息地,较适栖息地,边际栖息地和非栖息地4个等级,面积分别为409.32、574.32、2909.48、38722.32 km2。最适栖息地仅占全市面积的0.96%,而非栖息地占90.86%。利用GIS和Biomapper 4.0生成亚洲象栖息地分布图,发现普洱境内最适栖息地和较适栖息地面积狭小。对最适栖息地、较适栖息地和边际栖息地进行景观格局分析的结果表明,3种类型的栖息地破碎化均十分严重,连通度较低,栖息地内受到较大程度的人类活动的干扰。因此建议在普洱和西双版纳间尽快建立野生动物生态廊道,以加强亚洲象各种群间的交流。     

中国亚洲象取食植物种类统计与分析

2016年1月至2017年12月,分别采用样线法和跟踪调查法对中国境内分布的野生亚洲象和云南西双版纳亚洲象种源繁育与救助中心的10头圈养亚洲象放养时取食植物进行调查,经分类鉴定,共收集到亚洲象取食植物111种,分属29目、42科、77属,其中新增亚洲象取食植物57种,分属于21目、32科、44属。与文献中记载的中国亚洲象植物性食物进行了汇总,统计得到新的中国亚洲象植物性食物名录,共计32目、62科、162属、240种。多样性分析结果显示,G-F多样性指数为0.84,表明中国野生及圈养亚洲象取食的植物具有较高的多样性,这些植物涉及蕨类植物门、裸子植物门和被子植物门。其中,圈养亚洲象采食植物种类共84种,西双版纳境内圈养亚洲象以禾本科(Gramineae)的甘蔗(Saccharum spp.)、玉米(Zea mays)、马唐(Digitaria spp.)、象草(Pennisetum purpureum)、粽叶芦(Thysanolaena latifolia)等为主要食物,而国内其它地方(北京动物园、广州动物园和昆明动物园)圈养的亚洲象主要饲喂高粱属(Sorghum)的高粱(S.bicolor)或苏丹草(S.sudanense)等。因此,在将来开展野生亚洲象栖息地保护、恢复及食物源基地项目规划与建设时应规避农作物和经济作物,优选亚洲象喜食、速生、生物量大的土著物种,如野芭蕉、棕叶芦、董棕、构树、重阳木、中平树、马唐属及竹类等植物,按照不同季节进行套种,为亚洲象提供更多可口食物。对于圈养亚洲象,需要设计足够面积的食物源基地供放养,补充食物种类,增加运动量,增强体质,提高其生活质量。     

象科动物对当地森林生态系统的影响

现存的象科动物(Elephantidae)分为非洲草原象(Loxodonta africana)、非洲森林象(Loxodonta cyclotis)和亚洲象(Elephas maximus)3 种,作为森林生态系统的关键物种,它们对当地森林生态系统的影响非常复杂,在一定环境条件下,既可能是积极的作用,也可能是消极的作用。积极的作用包括:帮助植物传播种子;促进种子萌发;创造断层,维持群落多样性;为其他动物增加食物资源;为其他动物创造栖息地。消极的作用包括:使一些物种的种群数量减小;使森林变成灌木丛和草原等。而由于活动受限导致的种群密度过高是象科动物对森林生态系统产生消极作用的主要原因。当前象科动物的3 个物种均面临种群数量锐减和生存空间不断缩小的危机,为此迫切需要针对其对生物多样性和生态平衡的影响开展深入和全面的研究,并且应根据实际情况因地制宜地制定管理措施。     

Observations on the length of the intestinal tract of African <Emphasis Type="Italic">Loxodonta africana</Emphasis> (Blumenbach 1797) and Asian elephants <Emphasis Type="Italic">Elephas maximus</Emphasis> (Linné 1735)

The digestive tract of elephants is surprisingly short compared to other herbivorous mammals. However, measurements relating the length of the intestine to the body mass of the respective individual are rare. In this study, we report such data for an African elephant and an Asian elephant. Our data support the hypothesis that Asian elephants have a longer intestinal tract than their African counterparts. These findings are in accord with the observation of longer retention times and higher digestion coefficients in Asian as compared to African elephants. This difference between the species could be the reflection of slightly different ecological niches, with Asian elephants adapted to a natural diet with a higher proportion of grass.     

The historical development of zoo elephant survivorship

In the discussion about zoo elephant husbandry, the report of Clubb et al. (2008, Science 322: 1649) that zoo elephants had a “compromised survivorship” compared to certain non-zoo populations is a grave argument, and was possibly one of the triggers of a large variety of investigations into zoo elephant welfare, and changes in zoo elephant management. A side observation of that report was that whereas survivorship in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) improved since 1960, this was not the case in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). We used historical data (based on the Species360 database) to revisit this aspect, including recent developments since 2008. Assessing the North American and European populations from 1910 until today, there were significant improvements of adult (≥10 years) survivorship in both species. For the period from 1960 until today, survivorship improvement was significant for African elephants and close to a significant improvement in Asian elephants; Asian elephants generally had a higher survivorship than Africans. Juvenile (<10 years) survivorship did not change significantly since 1960 and was higher in African elephants, most likely due to the effect of elephant herpes virus on Asian elephants. Current zoo elephant survivorship is higher than some, and lower than some other non-zoo populations. We discuss that in our view, the shape of the survivorship curve, and its change over time, are more relevant than comparisons with specific populations. Zoo elephant survivorship should be monitored continuously, and the expectation of a continuous trend towards improvement should be met.     

Elephant Genomes Reveal Accelerated Evolution in Mechanisms Underlying Disease Defenses

Disease susceptibility and resistance are important factors for the conservation of endangered species, including elephants. We analyzed pathology data from 26 zoos and report that Asian elephants have increased neoplasia and malignancy prevalence compared with African bush elephants. This is consistent with observed higher susceptibility to tuberculosis and elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) in Asian elephants. To investigate genetic mechanisms underlying disease resistance, including differential responses between species, among other elephant traits, we sequenced multiple elephant genomes. We report a draft assembly for an Asian elephant, and defined 862 and 1,017 conserved potential regulatory elements in Asian and African bush elephants, respectively. In the genomes of both elephant species, conserved elements were significantly enriched with genes differentially expressed between the species. In Asian elephants, these putative regulatory regions were involved in immunity pathways including tumor-necrosis factor, which plays an important role in EEHV response. Genomic sequences of African bush, forest, and Asian elephant genomes revealed extensive sequence conservation at TP53 retrogene loci across three species, which may be related to TP53 functionality in elephant cancer resistance. Positive selection scans revealed outlier genes related to additional elephant traits. Our study suggests that gene regulation plays an important role in the differential inflammatory response of Asian and African elephants, leading to increased infectious disease and cancer susceptibility in Asian elephants. These genomic discoveries can inform future functional and translational studies aimed at identifying effective treatment approaches for ill elephants, which may improve conservation.     

Diet composition and foraging ecology of Asian elephants in Shangyong, Xishuangbanna, China

The composition of the diet and the foraging ecology of the Asian elephant in its natural habitat were studied from 1998 to 2000 in the Shangyong National Natural Reserve located at Xishuangbanna, China, using field observation and dung analysis. A total of 106 plant species were recorded as being eaten by Asian elephants, 83 of which were identified in the elephants' dung. The plant families that contributed to a major proportion of the elephants' diet in the study area were: Gramineae (8 spp., 10.0%), Moraceae (7 spp., 9.9%), Papilionaceae (4 spp., 8.4%), Araliaceae (3 spp., 6.6%), Vitaceae (3 spp., 5.7%), Apocynaceae (3 spp., 4.6%), Musaceae (1 spp., 4.2%), Zingiberaceae (3 spp., 3.7%), Myrsinaceae (3 spp., 3.6%), Rosaceae (3 spp., 3.6%), Euphorbiaceae (5 spp., 3.3%), Ulmaceae (2 spp., 3.0%) and Mimosaceae (4 spp., 2.9%). The most important plants in the elephants' diet were Ficus spp. (Moraceae, 9.0%), Dendrocalamus spp. (Gramineae, 4.5%), Musa acuminata (Musaceae, 4.2%), Microstegium ciliatum (Gramineae, 3.5%) and Amalocalyx yunnanensis (Apocynaceae, 3.1%). Asian elephants consumed a variety of plants in terms of life forms, including trees, vines, shrubs and herbs. Early successional plant species constitute a higher proportion of the diet than late successional plants (42 spp. taking 59% vs. 32 spp. taking 37%). Browsing species accounted for a larger proportion of the diet compared to grazing species (77 spp. taking 91% vs. 6 spp. taking 9%). The number of plant taxa (species, genus, family) in elephants' diet each month negatively correlated with monthly rainfall and mean temperature. The study may help to develop proper strategies for wildlife management especially with regard to the human-elephant conflict, which is now a serious issue in the conservation of Asian elephants in this area.     

Survey of the reproductive cyclicity status of Asian and African elephants in North America

The Asian and African elephant populations in North America are not self‐sustaining, and reproductive rates remain low. One problem identified from routine progestagen analyses is that some elephant females do not exhibit normal ovarian cycles. To better understand the extent of this problem, the Elephant TAG/SSP conducted a survey to determine the reproductive status of the captive population based on hormone and ultrasound evaluations. The survey response rates for facilities with Asian and African elephants were 81% and 71%, respectively, for the studbook populations, and nearly 100% for the SSP facilities. Of the elephants surveyed, 49% of Asian and 62% of African elephant females were being monitored for ovarian cyclicity via serum or urinary progestagen analyses on a weekly basis. Of these, 14% of Asian and 29% of African elephants either were not cycling at all or exhibited irregular cycles. For both species, ovarian inactivity was more prevalent in the older age categories (>30 years); however, acyclicity was found in all age groups of African elephants. Fewer elephant females (～30%) had been examined by transrectal ultrasound to assess reproductive‐tract integrity, and corresponding hormonal data were available for about three‐quarters of these females. Within this subset, most (～75%) cycling females had normal reproductive‐tract morphologies, whereas at least 70% of noncycling females exhibited some type of ovarian or uterine pathology. In summary, the survey results suggest that ovarian inactivity is a significant reproductive problem for elephants held in zoos, especially African elephants. To increase the fecundity of captive elephants, females should be bred at a young age, before reproductive pathologies occur. However, a significant number of older Asian elephants are still not being reproductively monitored. More significantly, many prime reproductive‐age (10–30 years) African females are not being monitored. This lack of information makes it difficult to determine what factors affect the reproductive health of elephants, and to develop mitigating treatments to reinitiate reproductive cyclicity. Zoo Biol 23:309–321, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

西双版纳勐海县勐阿水库对亚洲象迁移活动和人—象冲突的潜在影响

2020年1—12月,采用半结构式访查法、痕迹跟踪调查法和无人机跟踪调查法相结合的方法,对拟建西双版纳勐海县勐阿水库涉及区域的亚洲象种群结构、迁移路线等进行了调查,并采用样方法和3S技术对该区域亚洲象取食植物和栖息地适宜性进行了调查和分析,以探讨拟建勐阿水库可能对亚洲象迁移活动和人—象冲突的潜在影响。结果表明：(1)拟建勐阿水库区域活动的亚洲象小种群被称为澜沧江西部种群或西双版纳勐海—普洱澜沧种群,仅由19头亚洲象(10头雄性,9头雌性)组成,有2条亚洲象迁移路线穿越该区域;(2)在研究区域共统计到亚洲象取食植物12目19科32属33种,基本能满足该象群的取食需求;(3)海拔、坡度、植被隐蔽度及食物资源等生态因子的适宜性分析结果显示,大部分区域(包括占总面积14.61%的最适生境和占总面积82.05%的相对适宜生境)都能满足该亚洲象小种群的基本生活需求;(4)2条亚洲象迁移路线中的1条将因水库建设而阻断,迫使该象群改变原来的迁移路线;(5)水库淹没区的植被将被永久破坏,原本连片的适宜栖息地也将受到进一步切割和压缩影响;(6)当食物资源无法满足亚洲象生存需求时,它们可能会选择进入可在较短时间内获得大量食物的农耕区取食农作物和经济作物,随着人流、车流大量增加,亚洲象与人相遇的概率也会大幅度增加。分析认为,拟建勐阿水库将淹没1条迁移通道,对亚洲象迁移活动造成阻碍,迫使象群改变路线,还可能导致更为严重的人—象冲突。建议在水库工程设计和建设过程中采取有效的保护管理措施,减少工程项目对亚洲象种群及其栖息地的负面影响;水库建设和管理部门、林业和草原管理部门等应加强对亚洲象活动的监测和预警,避免亚洲象肇事造成人员伤亡和更大的经济损失。     

DNA analysis indicates that Asian elephants are native to Borneo and are therefore a high priority for conservation

The origin of Borneo's elephants is controversial. Two competing hypotheses argue that they are either indigenous, tracing back to the Pleistocene, or were introduced, descending from elephants imported in the 16th-18th centuries. Taxonomically, they have either been classified as a unique subspecies or placed under the Indian or Sumatran subspecies. If shown to be a unique indigenous population, this would extend the natural species range of the Asian elephant by 1300 km, and therefore Borneo elephants would have much greater conservation importance than if they were a feral population. We compared DNA of Borneo elephants to that of elephants from across the range of the Asian elephant, using a fragment of mitochondrial DNA, including part of the hypervariable d-loop, and five autosomal microsatellite loci. We find that Borneo's elephants are genetically distinct, with molecular divergence indicative of a Pleistocene colonisation of Borneo and subsequent isolation. We reject the hypothesis that Borneo's elephants were introduced. The genetic divergence of Borneo elephants warrants their recognition as a separate evolutionary significant unit. Thus, interbreeding Borneo elephants with those from other populations would be contraindicated in ex situ conservation, and their genetic distinctiveness makes them one of the highest priority populations for Asian elephant conservation.     

Social organization of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in southern India inferred from microsatellite DNA

Social organization of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is not well understood in the absence of long-term studies of identified individuals. Adult Asian elephant females and their young offspring of both sexes form matriarchal groups, with pubertal males dispersing from natal groups, but whether these social groups represent families and whether males show locational or social dispersal were unknown. Using nuclear microsatellite loci amplified from dung-extracted DNA of free-ranging elephants in a large southern Indian population, we demonstrate that female-led herds comprise closely related individuals that are indeed families, and that males exhibit non-random locational dispersal.     

元江-李仙江流域亚洲象生境适宜性评价——基于荟萃分析和遥感大数据分析

生境适宜性评价是物种保护和生境管理与规划的基础。近几十年来，云南境内野生亚洲象数量剧增，外扩迁移事件频发，而新迁入区域生境适宜状况因物种出现点数据缺乏而难以评价，掣肘迁移亚洲象保护与风险防范应急。以亚洲象新近迁入的元江-李仙江流域为案例区，采用荟萃分析统计亚洲象生境评价因子，结合相关性分析和方差膨胀因子独立性检验，筛选出生境评价因子；基于开源遥感数据产品量化生境因子，综合主成分分析和层次分析计算生境评价因子权重，采用生境适宜性指数(Habitat Suitability Index, HSI)模型评价元江-李仙江流域亚洲象生境适宜性，并分析其景观格局。结果表明：(1)元江-李仙江流域亚洲象生境适宜性空间格局主要表现为由下游至上游呈递减趋势，最适生境主要分布于流域下游段，而流域上游段适宜生境少；(2)元江流域生境适宜性低于李仙江流域，且其生境斑块连接度更低、破碎化更严重；(3)2021年“北移象群”北迁沿程生境适宜性由西南向东北呈下降趋势。基于亚洲象生境适宜性评价结果，科学引导野生亚洲象迁入适宜生境区，以规避人象冲突，保障外迁亚洲象群及其活动区居民生命财产安全，服务于区域生物多样性保护与...     

Comparative and functional analyses of fecal microbiome in Asian elephants

Asian elephant is large herbivorous animal with elongated hindgut. To explore fecal microbial community composition with various ages, sex and diets, and their role in plant biomass degrading and nutrition conversation. We generated 119 Gb by metagenome sequencing from 10 different individual feces and identified 5.3 million non-redundant genes. The comprehensive analysis established that the Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes and Proteobacteria constituted the most dominant phyla in overall fecal samples. In different individuals, the alpha diversity of the fecal microbiota in female was lower than male, and the alpha diversity of the fecal microbiota in older was higher than younger, and the fecal microbial diversity was the most complex in wild elephant. But the predominant population compositions were similar to each other. Moreover, the newborn infant elephant feces assembled and maintained a diverse but host-specific fecal microbial population. The discovery speculated that Asian elephant maybe have start to building microbial populations before birth. Meanwhile, these results illustrated that host phylogeny, diets, ages and sex are significant factors for fecal microbial community composition. Therefore, we put forward the process of Asian elephant fecal microbial community composition that the dominant populations were built first under the guidance of phylogeny, and then shaped gradually a unique and flexible gut microbial community structure under the influences of diet, age and sex. This study found also that the Bacteroidetes were presumably the main drivers of plant fiber-degradation. A large of secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters, and genes related to enediyne biosynthesis were found and showed that the Asian elephant fecal microbiome harbored a diverse and abundant genetic resource. A picture of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) reservoirs of fecal microbiota in Asian elephants was provided. Surprisingly, there was such wide range of ARGs in newborn infant elephant. Further strengthening our speculation that the fetus of Asian elephant has colonized prototypical fecal microbiota before birth. However, it is necessary to point out that the data give a first inside into the gut microbiota of Asian elephants but too few individuals were studied to draw general conclusions for differences among wild and captured elephants, female and male or different ages. Further studies are required. Additionally, the cultured actinomycetes from Asian elephant feces also were investigated, which the feces of Asian elephants could be an important source of actinomycetes.

     

Generation and Characterization of Antibodies against Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) IgG,IgM, and IgA

Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) immunity is poorly characterized and understood. This gap in knowledge is particularly concerning as Asian elephants are an endangered species threatened by a newly discovered herpesvirus known as elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV), which is the leading cause of death for captive Asian elephants born after 1980 in North America. While reliable diagnostic assays have been developed to detect EEHV DNA, serological assays to evaluate elephant anti-EEHV antibody responses are lacking and will be needed for surveillance and epidemiological studies and also for evaluating potential treatments or vaccines against lethal EEHV infection. Previous studies have shown that Asian elephants produce IgG in serum, but they failed to detect IgM and IgA, further hampering development of informative serological assays for this species. To begin to address this issue, we determined the constant region genomic sequence of Asian elephant IgM and obtained some limited protein sequence information for putative serum IgA. The information was used to generate or identify specific commercial antisera reactive against IgM and IgA isotypes. In addition, we generated a monoclonal antibody against Asian elephant IgG. These three reagents were used to demonstrate that all three immunoglobulin isotypes are found in Asian elephant serum and milk and to detect antibody responses following tetanus toxoid booster vaccination or antibodies against a putative EEHV structural protein. The results indicate that these new reagents will be useful for developing sensitive and specific assays to detect and characterize elephant antibody responses for any pathogen or vaccine, including EEHV.     

How selective are elephants as agents of forest tree damage in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park,Uganda?

Elephants are locally concentrated in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. Vegetation damage attributable to elephants appears to be increasing and may result in the modification of the forest. We examined the implied selectivity of stem damage due to elephants. We followed 26.84 km of recent elephant trails and used 122 plots to document tree damage in relation to species, stem sizes and locations. Of 897 trees (DBH ≥2 cm), 542 (60.4%) were intact, 22 (2.5%) debarked, 274 (30.5%) toppled and 172 (19.2%) had broken branches. Small trees were more likely to be pushed over or have their branches broken, whereas large trees were more commonly debarked. The species most frequently selected for damage included mid‐successional species such as Newtonia buchananii, Myrianthus holstii and Chrysophyllum albidum. These species may be vulnerable to increasing elephant numbers. Our analyses using general linear models indicate that elephants are selective concerning where, how and what tree stems they damage. We found a higher incidence of elephant damage per‐tree stem in open areas than in more closed areas, suggesting feedback in which elephants maintain open habitats that may be conducive for other species such as mountain gorillas. More work is needed to better determine how changing elephant numbers may influence Bwindi's conservation values.     

PHYLOGEOGRAPHY OF THE ASIAN ELEPHANT (ELEPHAS MAXIMUS) BASED ON MITOCHONDRIAL DNA

Abstract Populations of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) have been reduced in size and become highly fragmented during the past 3000 to 4000 years. Historical records reveal elephant dispersal by humans via trade and war. How have these anthropogenic impacts affected genetic variation and structure of Asian elephant populations? We sequenced mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to assay genetic variation and phylogeography across much of the Asian elephant's range. Initially we compare cytochrome b sequences (cyt b) between nine Asian and five African elephants and use the fossil‐based age of their separation (～5 million years ago) to obtain a rate of about 0.013 (95% CI = 0.011–0.018) corrected sequence divergence per million years. We also assess variation in part of the mtDNA control region (CR) and adjacent tRNA genes in 57 Asian elephants from seven countries (Sri Lanka, India, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia). Asian elephants have typical levels of mtDNA variation, and coalescence analyses suggest their populations were growing in the late Pleistocene. Reconstructed phylogenies reveal two major clades (A and B) differing on average by HKY85/Γ‐corrected distances of 0.020 for cyt b and 0.050 for the CR segment (corresponding to a coalescence time based on our cyt b rate of ～1.2 million years). Individuals of both major clades exist in all locations but Indonesia and Malaysia. Most elephants from Malaysia and all from Indonesia are in well‐supported, basal clades within clade A, thus supporting their status as evolutionarily significant units (ESUs). The proportion of clade A individuals decreases to the north, which could result from retention and subsequent loss of ancient lineages in long‐term stable populations or, perhaps more likely, via recent mixing of two expanding populations that were isolated in the mid‐Pleistocene. The distribution of clade A individuals appears to have been impacted by human trade in elephants among Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and India, and the subspecies and ESU statuses of Sri Lankan elephants are not supported by molecular data.     

The Asian elephants-driver partnership: the drivers' perspective

Elephant drivers, sometimes termed mahouts, are known to share a relationship with their elephants rarely matched in other human-animal interactions with regard to time invested, extent of cooperative activity, and everpresent risk to the driver. An investigation of this relationship was pursued at two tourist lodges in Nepal where elephants are used to transport tourists into a nearby jungle to view wildlife. The study sought to investigate the drivers' perceptions regarding the individual and social behavior of the elephants, the perceptions of the elephants, and the elephants' interactions with drivers. Standardized open-ended questions were administered with translator assistance to 17 head drivers of elephants. Drivers attributed their management success to the time and care they invested in caring for and becoming familiar with the elephant. Drivers worked in partnership with elephants to gather and prepare the elephants' food. Elephants responded to vocal commands of drivers for saddling. Drivers also took responsibility for elephants in their varied interactions with tourists. Although drivers varied in specifying the most desirable elephant at their lodge, they highly agreed on the identity of the worst elephant because of its aggressivity. In general, drivers believed that their elephants loved and trusted them. Most drivers reported that their elephants did not get angry with them. Yet, they knew that elephants would most like to be free in the jungle. Drivers presented consistent information as to the elephants' social preferences for and dislikes of one another.