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1.
Behavioral estimates of male mating success tested by DNA fingerprinting in a polygynous mammal 总被引:7,自引:6,他引:1
Pemberton J.M.; Albon S.D.; Guinness F.E.; Clutton-Brock T. H.; Dover G.A. 《Behavioral ecology》1992,3(1):66-75
We used DNA fingerprinting to determine paternity of 80 calvesborn into the individually monitored population of red deer(Cervus elaphus) on the Isle of Rum, Scotland. Using the paternityinformation, we investigated the assumptions and predictionsof behavioral estimates of male mating success, on which previousstudies in this population have relied. Over an 11- day intervalin the rut centered on a female's estimated date of conception,the probability that a male fathers a calf is closely relatedto the number of days he holds the female in his harem, increasingfrom 0.12 for 1 day to 1.0 for 6 days or more. We compared threemethods for estimating the reproductive success of individualmales from field observations of harem membership with truesuccess revealed by DNA fingerprinting. All three methods accuratelyidentified the relative success of individual males but werepoor predictors of absolute success: the behavioral methodsunderestimate the true success of successful males and overestimatethe success of many males who, in fact, fail to father any calves.In consequence, variance in male mating success is greater thanprevious behavioral estimates for this population suggested.Both harem membership data and observations of mating and otherestrous behavior can be used to identify males most likely tofather a specific calf. 相似文献
2.
Hejcmanov Pavla Vymyslick Pavla Kolkov Karolna Antonnov Markta Havlkov Barbora Stejskalov Michaela Policht Richard Hejcman Michal 《Journal of Ethology》2011,29(1):161-168
Mother–offspring interactions soon after parturition play a key role in the survival of mammals. We investigated the suckling
behavior of semi-captive Western Derby eland (Taurotragus derbianus derbianus) in a 60-ha enclosure covered by dense savanna vegetation in Senegal and farmed Common eland (T. oryx) on an open 2-ha pasture in the Czech Republic. We hypothesized that the basic pattern of suckling bout duration and mother–offspring
interactions would be similar between species, but would vary in response to the environmental conditions and breeding system.
During three calving periods, we observed the suckling of 27 and 23 calves of Derby and Common elands, respectively, between
the ages of 1–5 months, and the interactions between mother and calf before and during suckling. Suckling bout duration increased
with the age of the calves for both elands. However, in Derby elands we recorded longer suckling bouts in male than female
calves and shorter suckling bouts in primiparous mothers than multiparous ones; no differences were found in farmed Common
elands. The animals’ active approach to mother–offspring contact, for example naso–anal contact, and initiation and termination
of suckling, resulted in longer suckling bouts in Derby elands. The results suggest that Derby elands that range over a large
enclosure with dense vegetation cover adjust their maternal behavior in compliance with potential predator risk, facing a
trade-off between nursing and vigilant behavior in the wild. The suckling behavior of farmed elands, on the other hand, reflects
the conditions of captivity without predators and with the small available area enabling permanent visual contact of animals. 相似文献
3.
BERNICE WILLIAMS 《Medical and veterinary entomology》1993,7(1):94-98
Abstract. Cat fleas, Ctenocephalides felis, were released onto calves as unusual hosts, and sampled at intervals for histological examination. Egg output from fleas on age-matched male and female calves was monitored. Using indicators of reproductive maturation and regression together with egg output data, the reproductive success and fertility of cat fleas on male and female calves were estimated. Comparisons were made with fleas taken from cats. The mean egg output of fleas on the bull calf was highly significantly different from that on the age-matched female calf: 28.14 ± 2.96 (SE) eggs/h compared with 16.21 ± 1.96 (SE) eggs/h. A higher proportion of sampled fleas (83.0%) was reproductively mature on the feline hosts compared with the calves (45.4-62.5%). Blue bodies resulting from oocyte resorption were present in the ovarioles of 10.4-19.0% of fleas sampled from the calves. No blue bodies were present in fleas removed from cats. Eggs laid by fleas on calves were viable and larvae were reared to adulthood. The mean percentage hatching success on the age-matched male and female calves was 46.7% and 51.7%. This represents a reduction in viability of 28-33% compared with eggs laid by fleas on cats. Factors which may account for reduced reproductive maturation of fleas on calves, including protein content of the host's blood, are discussed. 相似文献
4.
Distance between dam and offspring (1–121 days old) in a herd of Japanese Black cattle (Bos taurus) grazing a tropical grass (Paspalum notatum) pasture (1.5 ha) was investigated during 7-h grazing periods over grazing seasons from May (spring) to October (autumn).
The mother–young distance was not constant throughout the grazing period, repeatedly increasing and decreasing. Although significant
periodicity was always detected in the mother–young distance, there was no consistent dominant cycle, indicating the complexity
of the within-day pattern of mother–young distance. The mean mother–young distance over the grazing period increased as a
calf aged, reaching a plateau at an age of about 33 days. The mean distance of a calf from its mother was usually shorter
than that from a non-mother cow, with the difference between the mean distances decreasing sharply until a calf became about
35 days old. The results and literature show that mutual independence of mother and young rapidly develops in the first 30–50 days
after parturition.
Electronic Publication 相似文献
5.
Torunn Moe Erling J. Solberg Ivar Herfindal Bernt-Erik Sæther Kari Bjørneraas Morten Heim 《European Journal of Wildlife Research》2009,55(3):217-226
During the last 30 years, the proportion of males in the calf harvest of moose (Alces alces) in Norway has decreased, indicating a decline in proportions of males recruited to the autumn populations. At the same time,
the percentages of exclusive calf hunting permits and of calves shot have increased. The change in calf sex ratio may thus
simply be the result of hunter preferences for slightly larger (6.2% higher body mass) male calves combined with fewer opportunities
for selective hunting due to increasing hunting quotas of calves. We examined this hypothesis by analyzing the variation in
sex, number of siblings, carcass mass, date, and location of kill of 16,330 moose calves harvested during 1970–2004. In the
presence of hunting selection for larger calves, we predicted larger proportions of male calves to be harvested in populations
with large sexual size dimorphism among calves. Similarly, we expected more males to be harvested from twin than single litters
because hunters then can more easily compare twins and select the larger calf, which is more often a male. Increasing proportions
of single female calves were also expected to occur in the daily harvest as the accumulated number of harvested calves increased
and the proportion of calves left in the population decreased. We found no positive relationship between the proportion of
male calves and the level of sexual size dimorphism, no clear difference in sex ratio between harvested single and twin calves,
and no increase in the proportion of single female calves as the accumulated number of calves in the harvest increased. This
suggests that the spatiotemporal variation in the harvest calf sex ratio in Norway most likely reflects differences in population
calf sex ratios prior to the hunting season and not varying degrees of hunting selectivity. 相似文献
6.
Reproductive effort and associated costs in bison (Bison bison): do older mothers try harder? 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
To examine the prediction that reproductive effort should increasewith age, I compared female bison (Bison bison) of varying agesin terms of maternal behavior, reproductive costs, and the qualityand quantity of offspring. In support of predictions, oldermothers showed more tolerance toward and spent more time nursingtheir calves in months 15 than expected based on agedifferences in size and presumed milk production. The two oldestmothers, who died before calving again, appeared to make thegreatest effort. When mothers were barren between calves, whichoccurred more often in older females, their increased investmentenhanced the weight, dominance, maturation rate, and/or fecundityof previous and subsequent offspring. In contrast to predictions,however, offspring quality did not generally increase with maternalage; in fact, primiparae tended to produce larger daughters.Nursing behavior varied little in month 1, when offspring conditionwas apparendy most affected. Young mothers contacted their calvesmore often and tended to graze more during the first month.Reproductive costs appeared greater for young mothers; theirfecundity in years after calving was relatively low. Proportionalweight loss following reproduction decreased with age, althoughchanging growth rates complicate interpretation. The resultssuggest a general decrease in reproductive effort, or at leastin associated costs, during the reproductive life span. Thispattern may be due in part to the increased experience and dominancestatus of older mothers, through which they may avoid some ofthe reproductive costs incurred by primiparae. 相似文献
7.
Sexual selection and mating patterns in a mammal with female-biased sexual size dimorphism 总被引:3,自引:0,他引:3
In mammals, species with highly male-biased sexual size dimorphismtend to have high variance in male reproductive success. However,little information is available on patterns of sexual selection,variation in male and female reproductive success, and bodysize and mating success in species with female-biased size dimorphism.We used parentage data from microsatellite DNA loci to examinethese issues in the yellow-pine chipmunk (Tamias amoenus), asmall ground squirrel with female-biased sexual size dimorphism.Chipmunks were monitored over 3 years in the Kananaskis Valley,Alberta, Canada. We found evidence of high levels of multiplepaternity within litters. Variation in male and female reproductivesuccess was equal, and the opportunity for sexual selectionwas only marginally higher in males than females. Male and femalereproductive success both depended on mating success. We foundno evidence that the number of genetic mates a male had dependedon body size. Our results are consistent with a promiscuousmating system in which males and female mate with multiple partners.Low variation in male reproductive success may be a generalfeature of mammalian species in which females are larger thanmales. 相似文献
8.
Previous work on the bicolor damselfish, a species with exclusivemale parental care of eggs, suggested that female mate choicewas based on male characteristics. The aims of this study wereto determine whether females discriminate among potential mateson the basis of courtship and, if so, to determine whether courtshipserves as an indicator of male parental quality. Observationsmade over two reproductive cycles showed that courtship ratesand mating success of individual males are positively correlatedand that males begin courting several days before females beginlaying eggs. Experimental manipulations showed that a male'scourtship rate is indicative of the subsequent egg survivalfrom his nest. We suggest that observed differences betweenmales in their courtship rates and parental ability may be aresult of differences in their energy reserves. These resultsdemonstrate the operation of honest advertising and lend supportto adaptive models of sexual selection. [Behav Ecol 1991;2:295300] 相似文献
9.
Behavioral correlations across breeding contexts provide a mechanism for a cost of aggression 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Identifying correlations among behaviors is important for understandinghow selection shapes the phenotype. Correlated behaviors canindicate constraints on the evolution of behavioral plasticityor may reflect selection for functional integration among behaviors.Obligate cavity-nesting birds provide an opportunity to examinethese correlations because males must defend limited nest cavitieswhile also competing for mating opportunities and providingparental care. Here, I investigated the role of behavioral correlationsin producing a counterintuitive relationship between nest defenseand reproductive success in western bluebirds (Sialia mexicana)such that males that defended their nests most intensely hadthe lowest reproductive success, measured as the number of withinand extrapair offspring that fledged. By experimentally measuringaggression across contexts, I show that this cost of nest defensewas due to the correlated expression of aggression across thecontexts of nest defense and malemale competition coupledwith a trade-off between malemale aggression and parentalcare. In particular, more aggressive males provisioned theirfemales less during incubation and this led to disrupted incubationpatterns and fewer fledged offspring. However, aggressive malesdid not benefit from avoiding parental investment by gainingextrapair fertilizations, and thus, it is unclear how high levelsof aggression are maintained in this population despite apparentcosts. These results suggest that there are constraints to theevolution of plasticity in aggression and emphasize the importanceof considering the integrated behavioral phenotype to understandhow variation in behavior is linked to fitness. 相似文献
10.
Sexually transmitted diseases play a potentially important rolein the ecology and evolution of host mating behavior. Here,we use a sexually transmitted nematode-cricket (Mehdinema aliiGryllodessigillatus) system to examine the effects of parasitism on hostmating activity and female choice. Previous work has shown thatinfected male crickets produce a significantly smaller nuptialgift (spermatophylax) than uninfected males. This is expectedto result in reduced spermatophylax feeding duration and earlyampulla removal. Here, we hypothesize that the parasite-mediatedreduction in spermatophylax size will consequently shorten femaleintercopulatory interval. We predict that females mated to infectedmales will exhibit a shorter intercopulatory interval than femalesmated to uninfected males. To test this hypothesis, we experimentallymeasured the behavioral responses of females mated to uninfectedand infected males. We found no significant difference betweenfemale handling of the spermatophylax and ampulla from infectedversus uninfected males. Although the duration of spermatophylaxconsumption is positively correlated with the duration of ampullaattachment, neither of these variables is correlated with femaleintercopulatory interval. Intercopulatory intervals for femalespreviously mated with uninfected versus infected males are notstatistically different. We conclude that parasitism in maleG. sigillatus does not influence female intercopulatory intervalor male mating success. We found no evidence for female matechoice based on male infection status. The lack of female choiceis consistent with theoretical predictions involving parasitesthat are sexually transmitted. 相似文献
11.
Fitness consequences of male parental care in Savannah sparrows 总被引:2,自引:2,他引:0
The fitness consequences of male parental care are central tolife-history models of reproductive effort and the evolutionof social and genetic mating system However in a 4-year study(19921995) of Savannah sparrows (Parsserculs sandwichensis)nesting on Kent Island, New Brunswick, Canada, male parentalcare during the nestling stage was only weakly related to offspringquality and survivorship. Females compensated for poor paternalperformance by elevating their feeding rates, and they thusameliorated selection on male parental care. The likelihoodand size of subsequent broods was also unrelated to male feedingeffort, suggesting the absence of some indirect (or female-mediated)benefits. These results were confirmed by an experiment in whichmale removal resulted in increased female feeding rates buthad little effect on the number or quality of young. In contrast,previous research with multilocus DNA fingerpnnting revealeda strong, positive relationship between a male's parental effortand his subsequent fertilization success. Together, this researchsuggests that the proximate and ultimate targets of male feedingeffort can be disiinct traditional assumptions regarding thefunction of male parental care in birds may therefore be incomplete. 相似文献
12.
Male tactics and reproductive success in the harem polygynous bat Saccopteryx bilineata 总被引:1,自引:1,他引:0
Alternative tactics in reproductive behavior enable individualsto maximize their fitness in relation to competitors in thesame population. In many taxa, territoriality is a common tacticof males to increase their reproductive success. In the batSaccopteryx bilineata, territorial males defend roosting areasfor females against other males and court females throughout
the year. Peripheral males in the same colonies do not defendterritories but compete with territorial males for reproductionwith females. In this study, we monitored the behavior of themales in a natural colony over three reproductive seasons.We compared morphological and age data and measured the reproductiveoutput of males adopting the territorial or peripheral tactic.No differences in body size or weight were detected betweenmale types, but the probability of adopting a tactic seemedto be age dependent. Peripherals were often young males andreplaced territorials in several cases, whereas the oppositecase was not observed. Peripherals were not excluded from reproduction,but territorials were more likely to reproduce. Variation in
reproductive success was high within both male tactics, andthe reproductive success of some peripherals was comparableto territorials, but, on average, the reproductive successof territorials was more than twice as high. Therefore, behavioraltactics do not seem to be equally profitable in general butmay represent different phases in the reproductive life of manyS. bilineata males. 相似文献
13.
Recent theoretical and empirical studies confirm that male matechoice and/or femalefemale mate competition can be expressedin the absence of sex-role reversal. Such reproductive patternsmay select for the evolution of female traits that indicatefemale phenotypic or genotypic quality among nonrole-reversedspecies. Although attention to the evolution and function offemale ornaments is increasing, additional focus is needed onfemale-specific ornaments (those not expressed in conspecificmales) and on nonavian systems in order to gain a broad understandingof how selection acts directly on ornamentation of female animals.In the striped plateau lizard, Sceloporus virgatus, only femalesdevelop orange throat patches during the reproductive season.The color peaks in expression near the time of ovulation andappears to stimulate male courtship. Here, I examine whetherthis female-specific ornament can be used by males to reliablyassess female phenotypic quality. Using multivariate regressionanalyses, I show that the area of the orange color patch predictsbody condition and mite load, the chroma (i.e., saturation)of the color patch predicts body size, and both patch area andchroma reliably predict average egg mass. Thus, female reproductivecolor may function as a condition-dependent signal, indicatingphenotypic quality to potential mates. 相似文献
14.
Male decorated crickets, Gryttodes sigllatus, normally lackbind wings and are incapable of flight (short-winged males),but occasionally exhibit fully developed hind wings that makerudimentary flight possible (long-winged males). Long-wingedmales bear a cost of flight in the form of decreased inseminationsuccess, which arises as a consequence of two interrelated factors:(1) long-winged males exhibit a lower reproductive investmentrelative to short-winged males, as measured by the mass of amale's spermatophore and reproductive organs and (2) the postcopulatorybehavior of females favors males that maximize their reproductiveinvestment. Of particular importance to male mating successis the spermatophylax, a large gelatinous mass forming partof the spermatophore and consumed by the female after mating.Consumption of the spermatophylax keeps the female preoccupiedwhile sperm are discharged from the remaining portion of thespermatophore (sperm ampulla) into her repro ductive tract.The spermatophylax of long-winged males is significantly smallerthan that of short-winged males and consequently requires lesstime to consume. As a result, the sperm ampulla of long-wingedmales is frequently removed before its complete evacuation andsignificantly sooner than that of short-winged males. Becausethe spermatophore-removal behavior of females mediates the relativeinsemination success of short-winged and long-winged males,it can be considered a form of cryptic female choice 相似文献
15.
The behavioral development of two aquarium bottlenose dolphin calves, one male (born to a primiparous mother) and one female (born to a multiparous mother), was examined. From birth to 9 weeks of age, a total of 558.7 h of nursing and behavioral data were collected using focal sampling methods. Data from both calves revealed a pattern of increasing independence as they aged, but there were significant differences between the two calves. Suckling rates, mean suckles per bout, suckling bout rates, and bout durations for the male calf were higher than those for the female calf throughout the study. These frequencies declined significantly over time in the male's case but not in the female's case. Her suckling durations (lock-on time) were longer than his. The male spent more time in infant position (under the mother) than the female calf and less time swimming in echelon position (alongside the mother). Over time, the male spent less time in infant position, and the female calf spent more time socializing and less time echelon swimming. Both calves decreased the amount of time spent close to their mothers over the 9 week period, and the mothers decreased their role in proximity maintenance over time. We suggest that factors related to maternal primiparity caused the male calf to develop an effective compensatory response of frequent nursing and spending more time in infant position. Both calves survived and were healthy at the end of the observation period. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc. 相似文献
16.
Correlates of reproductive success within alternative mating tactics of the common shrew 总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2
Stockley Paula; Searle Jeremy B.; Macdonald David W.; Jones Catherine S. 《Behavioral ecology》1996,7(3):334-340
Male common shrews (Sorex araneus) adopt two discrete matingtactics. The most successful males, in terms of number of offspringfathered, are those that establish large overlapping home rangesin areas of high female density early in the breeding season.An alternative, less successful mating tactic is to travel longdistances in search of mating opportunities. This study is aninvestigation of correlates of reproductive success for malesadopting these different mating tactics. Reproductive successunder natural conditions was assessed using DNA fingerprinting,and survival of offspring was monitored in the field. The numberof offspring fathered by males with overlapping home rangeswas positively correlated with the number of female ranges overlappedduring the breeding season and with testes mass. The numberof offspring fathered by males that made long-distance movementswas positively correlated with their epididymal sperm counts.It is argued that competitively superior (overlapping) malesachieve high reproductive success by competing to maximize thenumber of females inseminated, whereas those adopting an alternativemating tactic instead compete largely via sperm competition,aiming to maximize insemination success with any particularfemale. There was no significant difference in the fluctuatingasymmetry (FA) of males adopting different mating tactics (FAwas measured as the difference in length of the paired lateralscent glands). Fluctuating asymmetry was not related to thenumber of offspring fathered by males adopting either matingtactic, but was significantly correlated with the proportionof male offspring fathered that survived to sexual maturity.Although apparently not correlated with mating success in thisspecies, FA may reflect some aspect of genetic quality thataffects offspring survival. [Behav Ecol 7: 334340 (1996)] 相似文献
17.
Effects of extra-pair and within-pair reproductive success on the opportunity for selection in birds 总被引:9,自引:1,他引:8
The number of mates, their fecundity, and the number of extra-pairfertilizations can all affect male reproductive success in biparentalspecies. Extra-pair mating in birds has been of particular interest,because it could generate strong levels of sexual selectioneven when a species is socially monogamous. We examined howextra-pair fertilizations affect the opportunity for selectionin the sexually dimorphic common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas)and the sexually monomorphic house wren (Troglodytes aedon).We were able to identify sires for at least 95% of all nestlings,and, thus, we were able to make a nearly complete accountingof male reproductive success. Although extra-pair fertilizationswere common in yellowthroats (26% of young) it contributed little(21%) to the total variance in male reproductive success. Mostof the variance in reproductive success (58%) was attributableto the male's within-pair success, which was influenced primarilyby the number of young produced by each mate and the proportionof within-pair young sired. Despite a moderate level of extra-pairfertilizations (10% of young) in house wrens, almost all ofthe variance in male reproductive success (97%) was attributableto within-pair success, particularly the number of social mates.Although extra-pair fertilizations generally increase the variancein male reproductive success, within-pair reproductive successmay be the major source of variation in male reproductive success.Thus, sexual dimorphism in monogamous birds may be influencedmore by the number of mates and their fecundity than by extra-pairmatings. 相似文献
18.
We report an unusual case of communal sexual display in thearctiid moth Utetheisa ornatrix that we designate "female pheromonalchorusing." As in most moths, female U. ornatrix release a long-distancesexual advertisement pheromone during a nightly activity period.We arranged U. ornatrix females in 2 types of signaling conditions:grouped and solitary. When the females were grouped with neighboringsignaling females (grouped), they initiated pheromone releasesooner, continued release with less interruption and over alonger total period, and performed the release with faster abdominalpumping than observed in isolated females (solitary). This differsfrom the usual form of sexual communication in moths: female(chemical) signalers, male receivers, and a general lack ofinteraction among females. At mating, male U. ornatrix transfera large spermatophore that may enhance female reproductive successand which represents either mating effort or paternal investment.This action results in an extended postmating male refractoryperiod leading to a female-biased operational sex ratio. Weargue that this biased sex ratio generates intrasexual competitionamong females, to which they respond by elevating signalingeffort such that the likelihood of at least matching their neighbors'signals is increased. In the field, U. ornatrix are clusteredaround patches of host plants, and we also explore the possibilitythat pheromonal chorusing is driven by cooperation among groupsof relatedor nonrelatedfemales. 相似文献
19.
Tony Weingrill Erik P. Willems Michael Krützen Ronald Noë 《International journal of primatology》2011,32(2):415-429
Paternity success of high-ranking primate males is affected by the number of males and the number of fertile females and their
cycle synchrony. Female vervets in the wild show strong reproductive seasonality and do not advertise the ovulatory period
with conspicuous signals or behavior. Because this makes it difficult for males to monopolize fertile females, it can be expected
that male reproductive skew in this species is lower than in other cercopithecines living in multimale groups that advertise
the ovulatory period. We assessed male reproductive success in a captive vervet group, initially consisting of 4 males and
12 unrelated females. Besides a general low reproductive skew, we predicted paternity success of the alpha males to be dependent
on the overlap of synchronously fertile females, month into alpha male tenure, and housing conditions (the subjects were kept
in a large park but had to be locked in a small indoor compartment during the winter months). Further, because the number
of males reaching their prime increased over time, we predicted a decrease in reproductive success of the alpha male with
increasing tenure length of the alpha male. To assess this we collected genetic samples from 27 of 32 offspring born into
the group during 3 yr, using 7 polymorphic human microsatellite markers. Contrary to our predictions, reproductive success
of the males occupying the alpha position during the study was among the highest found in cercopithecines, with the alpha
males siring 78% of all offspring. The degree of overlapping fertile periods did not affect paternity success, nor did paternity
success of the alpha male differ between the 2 housing conditions. Only the alpha male’s tenure length had an effect. Alpha
male reproductive success decreased over time, which we attribute to either a shift in female mate choice toward younger males
or to increased competition among the males in the later stage of the alpha male’s tenure. This study demonstrates the importance
of assessing reproductive success of males throughout >1 season and should spawn more research into the role of female choice
and postcopulatory mechanisms in this species. 相似文献
20.
Male provisioning of incubating females can increase reproductive success by maintaining physiological condition of females
and consistency of incubation. The effects of male provisioning on the maintenance of incubation temperature and embryo development
should be particularly pronounced in environments where ambient temperature exceeds the tolerance of unincubated eggs and
where consistency of female incubation might be particularly important for hatching success. Here, we investigated the reproductive
consequences of incubation feeding in a desert population of House Finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) in southwestern Arizona. We found that greater nest attentiveness by females was related to higher minimum incubation nest
temperature, that in turn was closely associated with hatching success. Only 44% of males regularly provisioned their incubating
females. Although provisioned females maintained higher incubation temperature and took fewer incubation breaks than non-provisioned
females, overall, male provisioning did not influence incubation dynamics or hatching success. Further, a male’s incubation
feeding rate did not correlate with male provisioning of nestlings. These results corroborate the finding that, in male House
Finches, neither provisioning of incubating females nor pre-incubation courtship feeding are associated with increases in
circulating pituitary prolactin––the hormone regulating male provisioning of nestlings. We suggest that incubation provisioning
by male might be a component of pair maintenance behavior and that variation in male incubation behavior is best understood
in relation to asymmetries in residual reproductive values between the mates. 相似文献