Feeding ecology and postural behaviour of the three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus flaccidus) in northern Venezuela

We studied the diet, activity budget, vertical ranging, and postural behaviour in relation to weather of the three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus flaccidus) in disturbed montane forest remnants (1150 m asl) in northern Venezuela. Sloths spent most (72.9%) of their time resting and had a nearly exclusive (99.4%) leaf diet. While resting they assumed a sitting – not hanging – posture mostly (90.2% of observations). Species of three families, Clethraceae, Cecropiaceae, and Clusiaceae accounted for 77% of feeding records. Young leaves (67.2%) accounted for most of the leaf diet. Activity and posture were dependent on weather conditions. Sloths fed more often during mid-day hours and tended to rest more at dawn and dusk. In northern Venezuela sloths tended to use more frequently the upper strata of the canopy, while in warmer lowland sites they use intermediate levels more often. They adopted postures that maximized exposure of ventral surfaces to incident solar radiation when sunny, but minimized their surface area by huddling when cloudy, foggy or rainy. We propose that sunning behaviour of sloths may speed up their fermentation rate, and ultimately, might have been an important selective factor in the evolution of derived upside-down posture of sloths.     

Regional climate modulates the canopy mosaic of favourable and risky microclimates for insects

1. One major gap in our ability to predict the impacts of climate change is a quantitative analysis of temperatures experienced by organisms under natural conditions. We developed a framework to describe and quantify the impacts of local climate on the mosaic of microclimates and physiological states of insects within tree canopies. This approach was applied to a leaf mining moth feeding on apple leaf tissues. 2. Canopy geometry was explicitly considered by mapping the 3D position and orientation of more than 26 000 leaves in an apple tree. Four published models for canopy radiation interception, energy budget of leaves and mines, body temperature and developmental rate of the leaf miner were integrated. Model predictions were compared with actual microclimate temperatures. The biophysical model accurately predicted temperature within mines at different positions within the tree crown. 3. Field temperature measurements indicated that leaf and mine temperature patterns differ according to the regional climatic conditions (cloudy or sunny) and depending on their location within the canopy. Mines in the sun can be warmer than those in the shade by several degrees and the heterogeneity of mine temperature was incremented by 120%, compared with that of leaf temperature. 4. The integrated model was used to explore the impact of both warm and exceptionally hot climatic conditions recorded during a heat wave on the microclimate heterogeneity at canopy scale. During warm conditions, larvae in sunlight-exposed mines experienced nearly optimal growth conditions compared with those within shaded mines. The developmental rate was increased by almost 50% in the sunny microhabitat compared with the shaded location. Larvae, however, experienced optimal temperatures for their development inside shaded mines during extreme climatic conditions, whereas larvae in exposed mines were overheating, leading to major risks of mortality. 5. Tree canopies act as both magnifiers and reducers of the climatic regime experienced in open air outside canopies. Favourable and risky spots within the canopy do change as a function of the climatic conditions at the regional scale. The shifting nature of the mosaic of suitable and risky habitats may explain the observed uniform distribution of leaf miners within tree canopies.     

Highly‐enhanced larval growth during the cold season mediated by the basking behavior of the butterfly Parnassius citrinarius (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae)

Some insect species are thought to grow quickly, even in low temperatures under natural conditions, presumably by conducting basking behaviors to use sunlight. However, whether basking behavior in fact enhances developmental speed and shortens the larval period in the field has not been determined. Moreover, few studies have examined whether basking is behavioral thermoregulation or simply the result of highly‐heterogeneous heat environments in the field. To examine these issues, we conducted field observations and laboratory experiments using larvae of Parnassius citrinarius Motschulsky, which mature within a short period after the thaw in early spring. First, body temperatures of larvae were measured under sunny and cloudy conditions. Second, larval preference for warmer locations was examined. Finally, we compared the developmental speed of larvae when they basked under field conditions and when did not bask in laboratory conditions under different air temperature regimes. Under sunny conditions, larval body temperature was substantially higher than either the temperature of the host plant or the air temperature, and was equivalent to the temperature of dead leaves, which the larvae used as basking sites. In contrast, no such tendency was observed under cloudy conditions. Larvae exhibited an exclusive preference for warmer locations. Moreover, in the field, despite the low ambient temperature, larvae grew much faster than those reared in the laboratory. These results imply that the basking behavior of P. citrinarius larvae is active thermoregulation to maintain high body temperatures in the cold season.     

Behavioural Thermoregulation in a Small Neotropical Primate

The maintenance of body temperature in endothermic animals imposes considerable metabolic costs that vary with air temperature fluctuations. To minimise these costs, endotherms can adopt certain behaviours to adjust the pattern of heat transfer between their bodies and the environment. In this study, we evaluated whether a small Neotropical primate, the black‐fronted titi monkey (Callicebus nigrifrons), living in a seasonal environment can use behavioural mechanisms to cope with fluctuations in the air temperature. We monitored the air temperature and the titi monkeys’ behaviour over 1 yr. When the animals were inactive, we recorded the microhabitat used, the huddling between individuals and the body postures adopted. The monkeys primarily responded to air temperature fluctuations through microhabitat selection: they spent more time in sunny places and used higher strata of forest under lower temperatures. Moreover, they used sunny microhabitats during the first hour of their active period after colder nights. The monkeys did not huddle or change body postures in response to air temperature fluctuations. Huddling behaviour seemed to be primarily influenced by social interactions, and body postures were more energy conserving, regardless of temperature. Titi monkeys, however, used more energy‐conserving postures and huddling behaviour under cloudy conditions than sunny conditions, suggesting that these behaviours may be important when they are unable to thermoregulate by microhabitat selection. We concluded that fluctuations in air temperature can promote significant changes in the behaviour of titi monkeys and can impose important restrictions on mammals’ activities, even in tropical regions.     

Influence of day length,ambient temperature,and seasonality on daily travel distance in the Yunnan snub‐nosed monkey at Jinsichang,Yunnan, China

This article examines the effect of ambient temperature, day length, weather conditions, and seasonality on daily path length (DPL) of a free‐ranging group of Yunnan snub‐nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) using an auto‐released GPS collar. Data were collected from December 17, 2003 to October 22, 2004 at Laojunshan in northwestern Yunnan province, China. The average DPL of the monkey group was 909±472 m (n=291), with the shortest distance being 180 m and the longest distance 3,626 m. Ambient temperature and day length were found to affect DPL. Both factors were positively correlated with DPL, which means that the monkey group traveled greater distances on longer and warmer days. At the study site, three distinct seasons were identified, and DPL did not vary significantly across these periods. The time of sunrise was not correlated with DPL. Nevertheless, we sometimes observed the group starting its daily trip later on cloudy days than on sunny days. Furthermore, weather conditions (e.g. rainy, cloudy, and sunny) did not influence the average DPL of the study group. Overall we found that the primary factors affecting DPL in R. bieti were day length and ambient temperature, especially daily highest temperature. Am. J. Primatol. 71:233–241, 2009. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Behavioral thermoregulation in a sexually and developmentally dichromatic neotropical primate,the black-and-gold howling monkey (Alouatta caraya)

Behavioral thermoregulation in primates may provide a means for the conservation of heat during periods of low ambient temperature and/or food shortage as well as a way to dissipate heat under hot conditions. This article focuses on behavioral thermoregulation in a sexually dichromatic primate, the black-and-gold howling monkey (Alouatta caraya). Two models have been proposed to explain the evolution of sexual dichromatism in this species: thermoregulation and sexual selection. Five hypotheses associated with thermoregulatory behaviors are tested. These are as follows: (1) energy-conserving postures are used mainly under low ambient temperatures; (2) sunny resting places are selected during periods of low temperature; (3) exposure of the less-insulated ventral region to sunlight decreases with increasing temperature; (4) black-colored adult males use energy-conserving postures, sunny places, and exposure of the ventral region to sunlight less frequently than do blonde-colored adult females; and (5) smaller individuals use energy-conserving postures, sunny places, and exposure of the ventral region to sunlight in significantly greater frequency than do larger individuals. Over a 12-month period, behavioral data were collected on a free-ranging habituated group of 15–17 howlers of all age-sex classes. Ambient temperature was measured each hour. The results indicate that during resting, howlers showed a consistent use of heat-conserving postures, showed a preference for sunny places, and exposed their ventral region to sunlight under low ambient temperatures. A preference for shady places, heat-dissipating postures, and exposure of the back were observed under high ambient temperatures. Despite sex differences in adult color patterns and differences in size between age classes, no significant age or sex differences in thermoregulatory behaviors were detected. Failure to confirm a thermoregulation model implies that sexual selection may be responsible for sexual dichromatism in this species. Am J Phys Anthropol 106:533–546, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The potential interplay of posture, digestive anatomy, density of ingesta and gravity in mammalian herbivores: why sloths do not rest upside down

1. The interaction between the density of ingesta and gravity observed in the digestive systems of ruminant herbivores should receive attention in other non‐ruminant herbivorous mammals. The resting postures adopted by non‐ruminants are of particular interest. 2. A new interpretation of established findings regarding the digestive tract of sloths illustrates that the interplay of posture, anatomy, the density of ingesta and gravity can provide a novel explanation of behavioural and morphological adaptations in herbivores, as the average particle size and dry‐matter content increases within their forestomach from its caudal towards its cranial portion. In sloths, this could be indicative of a stratification of ingesta occurring in the upright sitting posture adopted while resting, as opposed to their characteristic upside down posture when moving. 3. The sitting resting posture of sloths could therefore be an adaptation to exploit the tendency of the forestomach contents to stratify in order to pass larger, more difficult‐to‐digest particles faster from the fermentation chamber.     

The Convergent Evolution of Suspensory Posture and Locomotion in Tree Sloths

Recent phylogenetic analyses imply a distant relationship and long separated evolution of two-toed sloths (Choloepus) and three-toed sloths (Bradypus). No known fossil sloth is interpreted to have been suspensory. As a consequence, the suspensory posture and locomotion of the extant genera likely evolved convergently in both lineages, forming a new framework for the analysis of functional aspects of the locomotor apparatus of extant tree sloths. The suspensory posture and locomotion has altered functional demands from the phylogenetically plesiomorphic non-suspensory pronograde situation. Here, anatomical traits that have been argued to be of adaptive significance for quadrupedal suspensory locomotion are reviewed and the evolution of these traits is discussed in light of the new framework. Experimental data are largely limited to Choloepus, but help to deduce functional aspects of the anatomy in Bradypus as well. The most important adaptive traits are hands and feet modified into relatively rigid hook-like appendages, great mobility of all joints proximal to the midcarpal and transverse tarsal joints, relatively long arms with a relatively short scapula, a rounded thorax with a small diameter, a highly mobile sterno-clavicular articulation, and emphasis on powerful flexion in the proximal limb joints via advantageous lever arms. Despite these changes, patterns of limb kinematics remained conservative during the course of evolution in the lineages leading to extant tree sloths, and it is suggested here that this also applies to the pattern of neuromuscular control of limb movements during locomotion. Morphological ‘solutions’ to altered functional demands posed by inversed orientation of the body differ in the two genera of extant tree sloths, thereby corroborating the proposed diphyly. Convergent evolution in tree sloths may be attributed to functional constraints posed by fossorial adaptations in early Xenarthra that canalized sloths to adopt a suspensory posture and locomotion in the arboreal habitat.     

Orientation behaviour in the Grayling butterfly: thermoregulation or crypsis?

ABSTRACT.

• 1 Body orientation and wing tilting in Hipparchia semele (L.) have been explained previously both by the need for shadow-minimization (crypsis hypothesis) and by the need to regulate body temperature (thermoregulation hypothesis).
• 2 This study tests the thermoregulation hypothesis by quantifying butterfly orientation in relation to sun position, using vector analysis, and correlating the data with ambient temperature and time of day.
• 3 During sunshine, Graylings tend to present a maximal wing area to the sun's rays when the ambient temperature is relatively low, and a minimal area when it is high ('sunning’and‘heat-avoiding’positions respectively).
• 4 On cool sunny days, butterflies adopt sunning positions throughout the day, whereas on warm sunny days they adopt sunning positions during the outlying periods and heat-avoiding positions in the middle period of the day. Correlations between wing exposure and both ambient temperature and time of day are statistically significant for warm sunny days.
• 5 During overcast weather, butterfly orientation is very variable and possibly random.
• 6 Analysis of sunny day data supports the thermoregulation hypothesis. This is discussed in relation to other known types of thermoregulatory behaviour observed in this species: stilting, shade-seeking, ground-hugging and shivering.
• 7 Conversely, the results do not support the crypsis hypothesis.

     

Microclimate of tree cavities during winter nights—implications for roost site selection in birds

We examined the relationships between cavity temperature, ambient temperature outside the cavity and structural characteristics of 70 cavities measured for 1 night to determine if cavity roosting birds may potentially select warmer tree cavities for wintertime roosting. The mean temperature increment of the cavity (=cavity-ambient temperature) varied from −2.4 to 4.9°C and increased with higher day-to-night fluctuations in the ambient temperature, smaller cavity entrance and better health status of the cavity tree. Cavities in healthy trees were warmer than those in dead trees, but this difference disappeared with rising mean ambient temperatures. This interaction between the effects of tree health status and mean ambient temperature, as well as the effect of day-to-night fluctuations in the ambient temperature, were supported by the analysis of repeated measurements of temperature taken on 12 consecutive nights in five cavities. The variability in cavity microclimates makes the selection of warmer roost sites possible, and the predictors of microclimate may provide indirect cues to prospecting birds.     

白蜡虫寄生蜂对颜色的选择性及活动规律

在云南省昆明市白汉场白蜡园中采用不同颜色对白蜡虫寄生蜂进行了颜色趋性实验,利用寄生蜂对颜色的趋性进行了红色、黄色、蓝色、蓝绿色、绿色、灰褐色、白色和黑色8种颜色、6:00-9:00am,9:00-12:00am,12:00am-15:00pm和15:00pm-18:00pm4个时段、寄主林树冠上部、中部、下部3个位置高度和东、南、西、北4个方位以及在阴天、雨天和晴天3种天气下的白蜡虫寄生蜂活动规律观察。结果表明,白蜡虫花翅跳小蜂(Microterys ericeri Ishii)、白蜡虫阔柄跳小蜂(Metaphycus ericeri Xu et Jiang)和中华花翅跳小蜂(Microterys sinicus Jiang)3种寄生蜂优势种对黄色有明显的趋向性,对颜色的选择性依次为黄色>蓝色>蓝绿色>绿色>白色>灰褐色>红色>黑色。在白蜡园寄主林,寄主植物中部诱集的白蜡虫寄生蜂数量最多,占52.21%;其次是下部,占39.80%;顶部最少,仅占7.99%。白蜡虫寄生蜂的活动与白蜡虫在寄主植物上的分布密切相关。白蜡虫寄生蜂在不同方向上的活动差异不显著。在一天中的不同时段里,白蜡虫寄生蜂在6:00-9:00am有一个活动高峰期,在15:00-18:00pm出现一个次高峰期。白蜡虫寄生蜂在晴天活动较活跃,在阴天和雨天活动较少。     

阴天和晴天对黄河三角洲芦苇湿地净生态系统CO2交换的影响

云量以及大气气溶胶含量变化引起的阴天和晴天会对局地的微气候环境产生综合效应, 影响地面接收的太阳辐射强度, 同时引起环境因子的变化, 最终对净生态系统CO₂交换(NEE)产生影响。该文通过涡度相关系统以及微气象梯度观测系统, 对黄河三角洲芦苇(Phragmites australis)湿地NEE以及环境要素进行了观测。在自然条件下选择12对相邻阴天和晴天数据, 在生物要素(生物量、叶面积指数)、土壤水分以及养分特征保持不变的前提下, 揭示了阴天和晴天变化对湿地生态系统NEE的光响应和温度响应的影响。结果表明: 12对阴天和晴天生态系统NEE的日平均动态均呈“U”型曲线, 但阴天NEE的变幅较小。晴天条件下湿地生态系统NEE的日均值显著高于阴天(p < 0.01)。阴天和晴天湿地生态系统NEE与光合有效辐射(PAR)之间均呈直角双曲线关系, 但晴天条件下, 最大光合速率(A_max)显著大于阴天(p < 0.01), 同时白天生态系统呼吸(R_eco,daytime)也显著大于阴天(p < 0.01)。不论阴天还是晴天, R_eco,daytime与气温均呈显著的指数关系。晴天湿地生态系统呼吸的温度敏感系数Q₁₀ (5.5)远大于阴天(1.9)。阴天和晴天昼间PAR差值以及气温差值对NEE差值的协同影响达到63%。     

The development of butterfly settling posture: the role of predators, climate, hostplant-habitat and phylogeny

A model is described that explains the evolution of adult butterfly settling posture. The role of climate and the activity of butterflies is fundamental in determining the effectiveness of primary and secondary visual defence systems based on wing colour and pattern. Both dorsal (open winged) and lateral (closed wing) postures can be regarded as evolutionarily conservative; common postures are found within almost all sub-families. Lateral postures tend to be associated with cool temperate and arctic climates. Conditions that are marginal for activity place an emphasis on the development of underside primary defence, uncompromised by secondary visual defences. In turn, any primary defensive function of the upper surface is reduced but secondary defence may be emphasized. There is interaction between segregation of functions on different wing surfaces and the development of lateral posture. The use of predictable hostplant-habitat structures reduces the role of visual communication in mate-location and facilitates the adoption of a lateral resting posture and a cryptic underside wing pattern. When hostplant-habitat structures are unpredictable but a lateral posture is adopted, primary defence is more important than visual communication for the resting insect. Adjustments of wing morphology facilitate postural conservatism, allowing species to retain particular postures in new hostplant-habitats and climatic zones.     

Clouds homogenize shoot temperatures,transpiration, and photosynthesis within crowns of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Abies fraseri</Emphasis> (Pursh.) Poiret

Multiple studies have examined the effects of clouds on shoot and canopy-level microclimate and physiological processes; none have yet done so on the scale of individual plant crowns. We compared incident photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), leaf temperatures, chlorophyll fluorescence, and photosynthetic gas exchange of shoots in three different spatial locations of Abies fraseri crowns on sunny (clear to partly cloudy) versus overcast days. The field site was a Fraser fir farm (1038 m elevation) in the Appalachian mountains, USA. Ten saplings of the same age class were marked and revisited for all measurements. Sunny conditions corresponded with 5–10× greater sunlight incidence on south-facing outer shoots compared to south-facing inner and north-facing outer shoots, which were shaded and received only indirect (diffuse) sunlight. Differences in spatial distribution of irradiance were mirrored in differences in shoot temperatures, photosynthesis, and transpiration, which were all greater in south-facing outer shoots compared to more shaded crown locations. In contrast, overcast conditions corresponded with more homogeneous sunlight distribution between north and south-facing outer shoots, and similar shoot temperatures, chlorophyll fluorescence (ΦPSII), photosynthesis, and transpiration; these effects were observed in south-facing inner shoots as well, but to a lesser extent. There was no significant difference in conductance between different crown locations on sunny or overcast days, indicating spatial differences in transpiration under sunny conditions were likely driven by leaf temperature differences. We conclude that clouds can affect spatial distribution of sunlight and associated physiological parameters not only within forest communities, but within individual crowns as well.     

阴晴天条件下高CO_2浓度对杂交稻光合作用影响的FACE研究

光和二氧化碳(CO_2)是绿色植物光合作用的两个基本条件.为了明确不同光照条件下,高CO_2浓度对不同杂交水稻光合特性的影响,2017年利用稻田大型FACE平台,以‘Y两优900’和‘甬优538’为供试材料,设置环境CO_2和高CO_2浓度(增200μmol·mol^-1)两个水平,分别在拔节期和灌浆期同时测定阴、晴天气条件下顶部全展叶光合特性参数.结果表明:高CO_2浓度使不同天气情况下两品种叶片的净同化率(P_n)均呈增加趋势,其中晴天条件下的增幅(31%)大于阴天(25%),拔节期的增幅(37%)大于灌浆期(21%),CO_2与天气、CO_2与生育期均存在显著的互作效应.叶片水分利用效率(WUE)对高CO_2浓度的响应趋势与P_n一致.高CO_2浓度环境下叶片气孔导度(g_s)、蒸腾速率(T_r)均呈下降趋势,晴天条件下的降幅略大于阴天.与晴天相比,阴天条件下叶片P_n、g_s、T_r、WUE和L_s平均分别下降41%、18%、41%、26%和27%,差异均达显著或极显著水平.相关分析表明,晴天P_n、g_s、T_r均与阴天时的参数呈极显著正相关关系.表明阴天使水稻生育中、后期叶片光合参数及其对高CO_2浓度的响应均大幅降低,且两品种表现一致.评估未来水稻产量潜力需要考虑天气条件.     

阴晴天条件下高CO2浓度对杂交稻光合作用影响的FACE研究

光和二氧化碳(CO₂)是绿色植物光合作用的两个基本条件.为了明确不同光照条件下,高CO₂浓度对不同杂交水稻光合特性的影响,2017年利用稻田大型FACE平台,以‘Y两优900’和‘甬优538’为供试材料,设置环境CO₂和高CO₂浓度(增200 μmol·mol^-1)两个水平,分别在拔节期和灌浆期同时测定阴、晴天气条件下顶部全展叶光合特性参数.结果表明: 高CO₂浓度使不同天气情况下两品种叶片的净同化率(P_n)均呈增加趋势,其中晴天条件下的增幅(31%)大于阴天(25%),拔节期的增幅(37%)大于灌浆期(21%),CO₂与天气、CO₂与生育期均存在显著的互作效应.叶片水分利用效率(WUE)对高CO₂浓度的响应趋势与P_n一致.高CO₂浓度环境下叶片气孔导度(g_s)、蒸腾速率(T_r)均呈下降趋势,晴天条件下的降幅略大于阴天.与晴天相比,阴天条件下叶片P_n、g_s、T_r、WUE和L_s平均分别下降41%、18%、41%、26%和27%,差异均达显著或极显著水平.相关分析表明,晴天P_n、g_s、T_r均与阴天时的参数呈极显著正相关关系.表明阴天使水稻生育中、后期叶片光合参数及其对高CO₂浓度的响应均大幅降低,且两品种表现一致.评估未来水稻产量潜力需要考虑天气条件.     

Limitations to photosynthesis of lettuce grown under tropical conditions: alleviation by root-zone cooling.

Aerial parts of lettuce plants were grown under natural tropical fluctuating ambient temperatures, but with their roots exposed to two different root-zone temperatures (RZTs): a constant 20 degrees C-RZT and a fluctuating ambient (A-) RZT from 23-40 degrees C. Plants grown at A-RZT showed lower photosynthetic CO2 assimilation (A), stomatal conductance (gs), midday leaf relative water content (RWC), and chlorophyll fluorescence ratio Fv/Fm than 20 degrees C-RZT plants on both sunny and cloudy days. Substantial midday depression of A and g(s) occurred on both sunny and cloudy days in both RZT treatments, although Fv/Fm did not vary diurnally on cloudy days. Reciprocal temperature transfer experiments investigated the occurrence and possible causes of stomatal and non-stomatal limitations of photosynthesis. For both temperature transfers, light-saturated stomatal conductance (gs sat) and photosynthetic CO2 assimilation (A(sat)) were highly correlated with each other and with midday RWC, suggesting that A was limited by water stress-mediated stomatal closure. However, prolonged growth at A-RZT reduced light- and CO2-saturated photosynthetic O2 evolution (Pmax), indicating non-stomatal limitation of photosynthesis. Tight temporal coupling of leaf nitrogen content and P(max) during both temperature transfers suggested that decreased nutrient status caused this non-stomatal limitation of photosynthesis.     

Ambient temperature and humidity modulate the behavioural thermoregulation of a small arboreal mammal (Callicebus bernhardi)

Maintaining a constant body temperature is critical to the proper functioning of metabolic reactions. Behavioural thermoregulation strategies may minimize the cost of energetic balance when an animal is outside its thermoneutral zone. We investigated whether ambient temperature and relative air humidity influence the use of behavioural strategies by a group of Prince Bernhard's titi monkeys (Callicebus bernhardi) living in a forest fragment. We monitored a social group composed of four individuals (an adult couple and two juveniles) for 1010 h from March to September 2015. We used the instantaneous scan sampling method to record the body posture, the microhabitat, and the occurrence of huddling with group mate(s) when animals were resting. We recorded ambient temperature and relative humidity in the shade every 10 min with a data logger hanging at a height of approximately 5 m. Daytime temperature ranged from 18.5 °C to 38.5 °C and relative humidity ranged from 21% to 97%. Titi monkeys avoided sunny places at higher temperatures, especially above 31 °C. Minimum night temperature did not influence the choice of resting microhabitats during the first hour after sunrise. Sitting was the major resting posture during the day (62%). Titi monkeys increased the use of heat-dissipating postures at ambient temperatures >27 °C. In addition, an increase in relative humidity increased the use of these postures at 26 °C, 27 °C, 29 °C and 33 °C, but caused a decrease at 24 °C. On the other hand, the ambient temperature did not influence the occurrence of huddling. We conclude that microhabitat choice and postural behaviour are important for titi monkeys to prevent overheating and suggest that these behavioural adjustments might also be critical for other tropical arboreal mammals.     

Termites like it hot and humid: the ability of arboreal tropical termites to mediate their nest environment against ambient conditions

相似文献   

The microclimate under coloured hailnets affects leaf and fruit temperature, leaf anatomy, vegetative and reproductive growth as well as fruit colouration in apple

The purpose of this study was to investigate supposedly positive biological effects of coloured hailnets on microclimate, including photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), UV-B, air, soil, fruit and leaf temperature as well as humidity, which in turn may affect leaf anatomy, tree growth and fruit quality; apple was chosen as a model crop at Klein-Altendorf near Bonn, Germany; adjacent uncovered trees served as control. Red and green hailnets transmitted 3–6% more red or green light, without alteration of the red:far red (R–666 nm:FR–730 nm) ratio (0.99–1.01:1) and hence without affecting the phytochrome system. The microclimate was changed with a reduction by 12–23% in PAR and, to a larger extent, by 20–28% in UV, viz. shading. Light measurements at a 45° angle, to mimic the fruit or leaf position, showed that PAR was 90–210 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹ larger outside on a sunny summer day than under the white or red-white and 150–340 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹ larger than under red-black and green-black hailnets. Air temperature and relative humidity under coloured hailnets decreased by ca. 1.3°C and by ca 2% rh (cloudy) to 5% rh (sunny day), respectively, compared with outside; leaf temperature was decreased by up to 3°C and fruit temperature by up to 6°C. Soil temperatures at 5 cm depth were 0.5–1°C colder under red-black and green-black hailnets, but up to 0.9°C warmer under white and red-white hailnets compared with the uncovered control outside. Alternate bearing had a larger impact on vegetative growth in the affected year than the coloured hailnets; annual trunk diameter increments in cv. ‘Fuji’, i.e. the variety susceptible to alternate bearing, showed a larger variation than cv. ‘Pinova’ without alternate bearing. Reproductive growth, viz. return bloom and leaf anatomy were impaired by the coloured hailnets. Apple trees under dark hailnets developed thinner leaves with a thinner epidermis and fewer layers of palisade cells. These leaves were 3.5°C (dark hailnets) and 2.5°C (white hailnets) cooler than outside on a sunny day compared with ca. 1.5°C (dark hailnets) and 0.85°C (white hailnets) on a cloudy day. Transpirational cooling of cv. ‘Fuji’ leaves was 0.3–0.6°C outside and 1.4–1.6°C under the green-black hailnet on sunny days compared to <0.1°C on cloudy days. As a practical application, apple fruit colouration was dependent on light (PAR and UV-B) transmission of the respective hailnet colour.