Mechanism of Runaway Electron Generation at Gas Pressures from a Few Atmospheres to Several Tens of Atmospheres

The mechanism of runaway electron generation at gas pressures from a few atmospheres to several tens of atmospheres is proposed. According to this mechanism, the electrons pass into the runaway mode in the enhanced field zone that arises between a cathode micropoint—a source of field-emission electrons—and the region of the positive ion space charge accumulated near the cathode in the tails of the developing electron avalanches. As a result, volume gas ionization by runaway electrons begins with a time delay required for the formation of the enhanced field zone. This process determines the delay time of breakdown. The influence of the gas pressure on the formation dynamics of the space charge region is analyzed. At gas pressures of a few atmospheres, the space charge arises due to the avalanche multiplication of the very first field-emission electron, whereas at pressures of several tens of atmospheres, the space charge forms as a result of superposition of many electron avalanches with a relatively small number of charge carriers in each.     

Ecton processes in the generation of pulsed runaway electron beams in a gas discharge

As was shown earlier for pulsed discharges that occur in electric fields rising with extremely high rates (10¹⁸ V/(cm s)) during the pulse rise time, the electron current in a vacuum discharge is lower than the current of runaway electrons in an atmospheric air discharge in a 1-cm-long gap. In this paper, this is explained by that the field emission current from cathode microprotrusions in a gas discharge is enhanced due to gas ionization. This hastens the initiation of explosive electron emission, which occurs within 10^–11 s at a current density of up to 10¹⁰ A/cm². Thereafter, a first-type cathode spot starts forming. The temperature of the cathode spot decreases due to heat conduction, and the explosive emission current ceases. Thus, the runaway electron current pulse is similar in nature to the ecton phenomenon in a vacuum discharge.     

Amplitude−temporal characteristics of a supershort avalanche electron beam generated during subnanosecond breakdown in air and nitrogen

The amplitude?temporal characteristics of a supershort avalanche electron beam (SAEB) with an amplitude of up to 100 A, as well as of the breakdown voltage and discharge current, are studied experimentally with a picosecond time resolution. The waveforms of discharge and SAEB currents are synchronized with those of the voltage pulses. It is shown that the amplitude?temporal characteristics of the SAEB depend on the gap length and the designs of the gas diode and cathode. The mechanism for the generation of runaway electron beams in atmospheric-pressure gases is analyzed on the basis of the obtained experimental data.     

Breakdown in helium in high-voltage open discharge with subnanosecond current front rise

Investigations of high-voltage open discharge in helium have shown a possibility of generation of current pulses with subnanosecond front rise, due to ultra-fast breakdown development. The open discharge is ignited between two planar cathodes with mesh anode in the middle between them. For gas pressure 6 Torr and 20 kV applied voltage, the rate of current rise reaches 500 A/(cm² ns) for current density 200 A/cm² and more. The time of breakdown development was measured for different helium pressures and a kinetic model of breakdown in open discharge is presented, based on elementary reactions for electrons, ions and fast atoms. The model also includes various cathode emission processes due to cathode bombardment by ions, fast atoms, electrons and photons of resonant radiation with Doppler shift of frequency. It is shown, that the dominating emission processes depend on the evolution of the discharge voltage during the breakdown. In the simulations, two cases of voltage behavior were considered: (i) the voltage is kept constant during the breakdown; (ii) the voltage is reduced with the growth of current. For the first case, the exponentially growing current is maintained due to photoemission by the resonant photons with Doppler-shifted frequency. For the second case, the dominating factor of current growth is the secondary electron emission. In both cases, the subnanosecond rise of discharge current was obtained. Also the effect of gas pressure on breakdown development was considered. It was found that for 20 Torr gas pressure the time of current rise decreases to 0.1 ns, which is in agreement with experimental data.     

Energy distribution of runaway electrons generated by a nanosecond discharge in atmospheric-pressure air

The spectra of an ultrashort avalanche electron beam generated by a nanosecond discharge in atmospheric-pressure air were investigated. The temporal characteristics of the beam current pulses, gap voltage, and discharge current in a gas diode were measured with a time resolution of ～0.1 ns. A simple technique was developed for recovering electron spectra from the curves of beam attenuation by aluminum foils. The effect of the cathode design, electrode gap length, and generator parameters on the electron spectra were studied using seven setups. It is shown that generation of electrons with anomalously high energies requires the use of cathodes with increased curvature radius.     

Pulse-periodic generation of supershort avalanche electron beams and X-ray emission

Pulse-periodic generation of supershort avalanche electron beams (SAEBs) and X-ray emission in nitrogen, as well as the transition from a single-pulse mode to a pulse-periodic mode with a high repetition frequency, was studied experimentally. It is shown that, in the pulse-periodic mode, the full width at halfmaximum of the SAEB is larger and the decrease rate of the gap voltage is lower than those in the single-pulse mode. It is found that, when the front duration of the voltage pulse at a nitrogen pressure of 90 Torr decreases from 2.5 to 0.3 ns, the X-ray exposure dose in the pulse-periodic mode increases by more than one order of magnitude and the number of SAEB electrons also increases. It is shown that, in the pulse-periodic mode of a diffuse discharge, gas heating in the discharge gap results in a severalfold increase in the SAEB amplitude (the number of electrons in the beam). At a generator voltage of 25 kV, nitrogen pressure of 90 Torr, and pulse repetition frequency of 3.5 kHz, a runaway electron beam was detected behind the anode foil.     

Picosecond runaway electron beams in air

Experimental data on the generation of picosecond runaway electron beams in an air gap with an inhomogeneous electric field at a cathode voltage of up to 500 kV are presented. The methods and equipment developed for these experiments made it possible to measure the beam characteristics with a time resolution of better than 10⁻¹¹ s, determine the voltage range and the beam formation time in the breakdown delay stage, and demonstrate the influence of the state of the cathode surface on the stability of runaway electron generation. It is demonstrated that the critical electron runaway field in air agrees with the classical concepts and that the accelerated beam can be compressed to ∼20 ps. It is unlikely that, under these conditions, the beam duration is limited due to the transition of field emission from the cathode to a microexplosion of inhomogeneities. The maximum energy acquired by runaway electrons in the course of acceleration does not exceed the value corresponding to the electrode voltage.     

Peculiarities of formation and development of initial stages of an impulse breakdown in argon

The experimental results on the formation and development of initial stages of an impulse breakdown in atmospheric-pressure argon at townsend and streamer breakdown mechanisms for different initial conditions are presented. A streamer channel is shown to be initiated by bright luminescence formed at the point of critical avalanche amplification at different distances from the cathode depending on overvoltage. Prebreakdown currents are experimentally measured for the townsend and streamer breakdown mechanisms and peculiarities of spark channel formation for these mechanisms are studied.     

Parameters of a supershort avalanche electron beam generated in atmospheric-pressure air

Conditions under which the number of runaway electrons in atmospheric-pressure air reaches ∼5 × 10¹⁰ are determined. Recommendations for creating runaway electron accelerators are given. Methods for measuring the parameters of a supershort avalanche electron beam and X-ray pulses from gas-filled diodes, as well as the discharge current and gap voltage, are described. A technique for determining the instant of runaway electron generation with respect to the voltage pulse is proposed. It is shown that the reduction in the gap voltage and the decrease in the beam current coincide in time. The mechanism of intense electron beam generation in gas-filled diodes is analyzed. It is confirmed experimentally that, in optimal regimes, the number of electrons generated in atmospheric-pressure air with energies T > eU _m , where U _m is the maximum gap voltage, is relatively small.     

Dynamics of the ion energy spectrum in EUV-induced hydrogen plasma

The dynamics of the ion energy spectrum in low-pressure (10–100 Pa) hydrogen plasma induced by extreme ultraviolet (EUV) pulses in the wavelength range of 10–20 nm was studied experimentally. The plasma was generated under cathode irradiation due to both direct gas ionization by EUV photons and impact ionization by high-energy secondary electrons. The dynamics of the spectra of ions incident on the cathode was measured using a time-resolved retarding field energy analyzer. It is shown that the ion spectrum dynamics is completely determined by the time evolution of the cathode sheath. At low gas pressures (<20 Pa), the ion spectrum at early moments after the EUV pulse has a peaked shape, typical of a collisionless plasma sheath, and is mainly determined by the cathode voltage. As the pressure increases, the peak broadens and low energy ions appear in the spectrum due to ion collisions in the cathode sheath. An increase in the role of collisions with decreasing plasma density is also observed in the time evolution of ion spectra.     

Two-component structure of the current pulse of a ranaway electron beam generated during electric breakdown of elevated-pressure nitrogen

Conditions are investigated at which two current pulses of ranaway electron beams are generated in elevated-pressure nitrogen during one voltage pulse. It is shown that the regime with two runaway electron beam current pulses takes place at decreased values of the electric field strength E in the gap (or decreased values of the parameter E/p, where p is the gas pressure). The regime with two runaway electron beam current pulses is observed both at high (1500?C3000 Torr) and low (below 100 Torr) pressures. It is shown that, for the second runaway electron beam current pulse to form, the voltage across the gap should be partially reduced during the first pulse. At low nitrogen pressures (~10 Torr), the regime in which two runaway electron beams are generated can be implemented by increasing the breakdown strength of the gap and/or increasing the value of E/p. In experiments carried out in atmospheric-pressure air with a picosecond time resolution, a rather complicated structure of the beam current pulse is observed at a voltage rise time of ~300 ps.     

Formation of Wide Streamers during a Subnanosecond Discharge in Atmospheric-Pressure Air

Results are presented from experimental and computational studies of a subnanosecond breakdown of atmospheric-pressure air in a nonuniform electric field. It is shown that the ionization waves (streamers) formed in the prebreakdown stage have a nearly spherical or conical shape. The diameter of the streamer in its widest part is found to increase with increasing voltage and discharge gap length. For a rise time of the voltage pulse of ≈0.5 ns and its amplitude of ≈250 kV, streamers about 8 cm in diameter were observed in a 7-cm-long gap.     

Fundamental parameters of a relativistic runaway electron avalanche in air

A relativistic runaway electron avalanche in air is simulated numerically by the Monte Carlo method with allowance for a large number of elementary processes involving electrons, positrons, and photons. The characteristic time scale of the avalanche amplification is calculated as a function of the overvoltage δ relative to the minimum value of the drag force between the electrons and the atomic particles of the medium. The dynamics of the formation of the electron energy distribution is investigated. The steady-state mean electron energy depends weakly on δ. Over a wide range of δ values, there exists a universal electron energy distribution, which is essentially independent of δ. The angular distributions of electrons integrated over energies, as well as the angular distributions for different energy groups, are calculated. Analytic approximations for the energy and angular distributions are obtained.     

Simulation of the Plasma Afterglow in the Discharge Gap of a Subnanosecond Switch Based on an Open Discharge in Helium

The phenomenon of subnanosecond electrical breakdown in a strong electric field observed in an open discharge in helium at pressures of 6–20 Torr can be used to create ultrafast plasma switches triggering into a conducting state for a time shorter than 1 ns. To evaluate the possible repetition rate of such a subnanosecond switch, it is interesting to study the decay dynamics of the plasma remaining in the discharge gap after ultrafast breakdown. In this paper, a kinetic model based on the particle-in-cell Monte Carlo collision method is used to study the dynamics of the plasma afterglow in the discharge gap of a subnanosecond switch operating with helium at a pressure of 6 Torr. The simulation results show that the radiative, collisional-radiative, and three-body collision recombination mechanisms significantly contribute to the afterglow decay only while the plasma density remains higher than 10¹² cm^?3; the main mechanism of the further plasma decay is diffusion of plasma particles onto the wall. Therefore, the effect of recombination in the plasma bulk is observed only during the first 10–20 μs of the afterglow. Over nearly the same time, plasma electrons become thermalized. The afterglow time can be substantially reduced by applying a positive voltage U_c to the cathode. Since diffusive losses are limited by the ion mobility, the additional ion drift toward the wall significantly accelerates plasma decay. As U_c increases from 0 to +500 V, the characteristic time of plasma decay is reduced from 35 to 10 μs.     

Mechanism of streamer stopping in a surface dielectric barrier discharge

Two-dimensional numerical simulations of streamer development in a surface dielectric barrier discharge excited by a voltage pulse with a duration of 30–50 ns in atmospheric air show that the streamer propagation velocity is mainly governed by the velocity of potential diffusion along streamer channels. The calculated streamer length substantially exceeds the experimentally observed one due to the long-term conservation of the conductivity of these channels. A hypothesis on the three-dimensional character of the decay of the surface streamer channel is proposed. The model account of this effect in two-dimensional simulations reduces the calculated time of streamer development and the calculated streamer length to the experimentally observed values.     

Subnanosecond processes in the stage of breakdown formation in gas at a high pressure

Results are presented from experimental studies of the prebreakdown stage of a discharge in nitrogen at pressures of a few tens of atmospheres, gap voltages higher than 140 kV, and a voltage rise time of about 1 ns. Breakdown occurs at the front of the voltage pulse; i.e., the time of breakdown formation is shorter than the front duration. It is shown that, in gaps with a nonuniform electric field, the breakdown formation time is mainly determined by the time of avalanche development to the critical number of charge carriers. The subsequent stages of breakdown (the development of the ionization wave and the buildup of the conductivity in the weakly conducting channel bridging the gap) turn out to be shorter than this time or comparable to it.     

Effect of hydrogen ratio on plasma parameters of N2-H2 gas mixture glow discharge

A dc plane glow discharge in a nitrogen-hydrogen (N₂-H₂) gas mixture has been operated at discharge currents of 10 and 20 mA. The electron energy distribution function (EEDF) at different hydrogen concentrations is measured. A Maxwellian EEDF is found in the positive column region, while in both cathode fall and negative glow regions, a non-Maxwellian one is observed. Langmuir electric probes are used at different axial positions, gas pressures, and hydrogen concentrations to measure the electron temperature and plasma density. The electron temperature is found to increase with increasing H₂ concentration and decrease with increasing both the axial distance from the cathode and the mixture pressure. At first, with increasing distance from the cathode, the ion density decreases, while the electron density increases; then, as the anode is further approached, they remain nearly constant. At different H₂ concentrations, the electron and ion densities decrease with increasing the mixture pressure. Both the electron and ion densities slightly decrease with increasing H₂ concentration.     

Analysis of the results of a laboratory experiment on the observation of a runaway electron avalanche in air under high overvoltages

Analytic estimates and numerical computations are carried out to test the concept of a laboratory experiment on the demonstration of a runaway electron (RE) avalanche and RE-induced air breakdown under high overvoltages. It is shown that the development of an RE avalanche is impossible under the conditions of the given laboratory experiment. The experimentally observed distinct tail of the picosecond RE pulse, which was interpreted as the RE avalanche induced by the primary RE peak, is very weakly pronounced in the numerical experiment. Only the initial stage of the RE avalanche could be observed in the laboratory experiment; however, according to the numerical results, the fraction of REs in it is too small (as compared to the number of electrons in the primary peak) for the secondary REs to appreciably affect the breakdown process.     

Electron cyclotron resonance acceleration of electrons to relativistic energies by a microwave field in a mirror trap

Results are presented from experiments on the acceleration of electrons by a 2.45-GHz microwave field in an adiabatic mirror trap under electron cyclotron resonance conditions, the electric and wave vectors of the wave being orthogonal to the trap axis. At a microwave electric field of ≥10 V/cm and air pressures of 10^?6–10^?4 Torr (the experiments were also performed with helium and argon), a self-sustained discharge was initiated in which a fraction of plasma electrons were accelerated to energies of 0.3–0.5 MeV. After the onset of instability, the acceleration terminated; the plasma decayed; and the accelerated electrons escaped toward the chamber wall, causing the generation of X-ray emission. Estimates show that electrons can be accelerated to the above energies only in the regime of self-phased interaction with the microwave field, provided that the electrons with a relativistically increased mass penetrate into the region with a higher magnetic field. It is shown that the negative-mass instability also can contribute to electron acceleration. The dynamic friction of the fast electrons by neutral particles in the drift space between the resonance zones does not suppress electron acceleration, so the electrons pass into a runaway regime. Since the air molecules excited by relativistic runaway electrons radiate primarily in the red spectral region, this experiment can be considered as a model of high-altitude atmospheric discharges, known as “red sprites.”     

Energy of electrons generated during a subnanosecond breakdown in atmospheric-pressure air

The influence of the cathode design on the energy of the main group of electrons generated during a subnanosecond breakdown in atmospheric-pressure air was studied experimentally. The electron energy was measured using a time-of-flight spectrometer with a picosecond time resolution. It is shown that the energy of the main group of electrons increases with increasing cathode curvature radius. It is established using 400- to 650-μm-thick aluminum foils that the electron energy reaches its maximum value in voltage pulses with abrupt trailing edges and amplitudes below the maximum amplitude. Electrons with maximum energies are generated with a stronger spatial and amplitude scatter than those with average energies.