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1.
Aims
Root-specific responses to stress are not well-known, and have been largely based on indirect measurements of bulk soil water extraction, which limits mechanistic modeling of root function.Methods
Here, we used neutron radiography to examine in situ root-soil water dynamics of a previously droughted black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa) seedling, contrasting water uptake by the two major components of the root system that differed in initial recovery rate as apparent by ‘new’ (whiter, thinner), or ‘old’ (darker, thicker) parts of the fine root system.Results
The smaller diameter ‘new’ roots had greater water uptake per unit surface area than the larger diameter ‘old’ roots, but they had less total surface area leading to less total water extraction; rates ranged from 0.0027–0.0116 g cm?2 h?1. The finest most-active roots were not visible in the radiographs, indicating the need to include destructive sampling. Analysis based on root-free bulk soil hydraulic properties indicated substantial redistribution of water via saturated/unsaturated flow and capillary wicking across the layers - suggesting water uptake dynamics following an infiltration event may be more complex than approximated by common soil hydraulic or root surface area modeling approaches.Conclusions
Our results highlight the need for continued exploration of root-trait specific water uptake rates in situ, and impacts of roots on soil hydraulic properties – both critical components for mechanistic modeling of root function.2.
S. L. Bauke M. Landl M. Koch D. Hofmann K. A. Nagel N. Siebers A. Schnepf W. Amelung 《Plant and Soil》2017,416(1-2):67-82
Background and aims
Macropores may be preferential root pathways into the subsoil. We hypothesised that the presence of macropores promotes P-uptake from subsoil, particularly at limited water supply in surface soil. We tested this hypothesis in a rhizotron experiment with spring wheat (Triticum aestivum cv. Scirocco) under variation of fertilisation and irrigation.Methods
Rhizotrons were filled with compacted subsoil (bulk density 1.4 g cm?3), underneath a P-depleted topsoil. In half of these rhizotrons the subsoil contained artificial macropores. Spring wheat was grown for 41 days with and without irrigation and 31P–addition. Also, a 33P–tracer was added at the soil surface to trace P-distribution in plants using liquid scintillation counting and radioactive imaging.Results
Fertilisation and irrigation promoted biomass production and plant P-uptake. Improved growing conditions resulted in a higher proportion of subsoil roots, indicating that the topsoil root system additionally promoted subsoil nutrient acquisition. The presence of macropores did not improve plant growth but tended to increase translocation of 33P into both above- and belowground biomass. 33P–imaging confirmed that this plant-internal transport of topsoil-P extended into subsoil roots.Conclusions
The lack of penetration resistance in macropores did not increase plant growth and nutrient uptake from subsoil here; however, wheat specifically re-allocated topsoil-P for subsoil root growth.3.
Yuliya V. Kuzmicheva Aleksander I. Shaposhnikov Svetlana N. Petrova Natalia M. Makarova Irina L. Tychinskaya Jan V. Puhalsky Nikolay V. Parahin Igor A. Tikhonovich Andrey A. Belimov 《Plant and Soil》2017,413(1-2):83-95
Aims
It has been increasingly recognized that only distal lower order roots turn over actively within the <2 mm fine root system of trees. This study aimed to estimate fine root production and turnover rate based on lower order fine roots and their relations to soil variables in mangroves.Methods
We conducted sequential coring in five natural mangrove forests at Dongzhai Bay, China. Annual fine root production and turnover rate were calculated based on the seasonal variations of the biomass and necromass of lower order roots or the whole fine root system.Results
Annual fine root production and turnover rate ranged between 571 and 2838 g m?2 and 1.46–5.96 yr?1, respectively, estimated with lower order roots, and they were increased by 0–30 % and reduced by 13–48 %, respectively, estimated with the whole fine root system. Annual fine root production was 1–3.5 times higher than aboveground litter production and was positively related to soil carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations. Fine root turnover rate was negatively related to soil salinity.Conclusions
Mangrove fine root turnover plays a more important role than aboveground litter production in soil C accumulation. Sites with higher soil nutrients and lower salinity favor fine root production and turnover, and thus favor soil C accumulation.4.
Chih-Li Yu Dafeng Hui Qi Deng E. Kudjo Dzantor Philip A. Fay Weijun Shen Yiqi Luo 《Plant and Soil》2017,420(1-2):105-117
Aims
The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of the precipitation changes on soil, microbial and root respirations of switchgrass soils, and the relationships between soil respiration and plant growth, soil moisture and temperature.Methods
A mesocosm experiment was conducted with five precipitation treatments over two years in a greenhouse in Nashville, Tennessee. The treatments included ambient precipitation, ?50%, ?33%, +33% and +50% of ambient precipitation. Soil, microbial, and root respirations were quantified during the growing seasons.Results
Mean soil and root respirations in the +50% treatment were the highest (2.48 and 0.93 μmol CO2 m?2 s?1, respectively) among all treatments. Soil microbial respiration contributed more to soil respiration, and had higher precipitation sensitivity mostly than root respiration. Increases in precipitation mostly enhanced microbial respiration while decreases in precipitation reduced both microbial and root respirations. Across precipitation treatments, soil respiration was significantly influenced by soil moisture, soil temperature, and aboveground biomass.Conclusions
Our results showed that microbial respiration was more sensitive to precipitation changes, and precipitation regulated the response of soil respiration to soil temperature. The information generated in this study will be useful for model simulation of soil respiration in switchgrass fields under precipitation changes.5.
Janneke M. Ravenek Liesje Mommer Eric J. W. Visser Jasper van Ruijven Jan Willem van der Paauw Annemiek Smit-Tiekstra Hannie de Caluwe Hans de Kroon 《Plant and Soil》2016,401(1-2):39-50
Background and aims
Measures of phosphorus (P) in roots recovered from soil underestimate total P accumulation below-ground by crop species since they do not account for P in unrecovered (e.g., fine) root materials. 33P-labelling of plant root systems may allow more accurate estimation of below-ground P input by plants.Methods
Using a stem wick-feeding technique 33P-labelled phosphoric acid was fed in situ to canola (Brassica napus) and lupin (Lupinus angustifolius) grown in sand or loam soils in sealed pots.Results
Recovery of 33P was 93 % in the plant-soil system and 7 % was sorbed to the wick. Significantly more 33P was allocated below-ground than to shoots for both species with 59–90 % of 33P measured in recovered roots plus bulk and rhizosphere soil. 33P in recovered roots was higher in canola than lupin regardless of soil type. The proportion of 33P detected in soil was greater for lupin than canola grown in sand and loam (37 and 73 % lupin, 20 and 23 % canola, respectively). Estimated total below-ground P accumulation by both species was at least twice that of recovered root P and was a greater proportion of total plant P for lupin than canola.Conclusion
Labelling roots using 33P via stem feeding can empower quantitative estimates of total below-ground plant P and root dry matter accumulation which can improve our understanding of P distribution in soil-plant systems.6.
Background and aims
Earthworms effect on plant growth is mediated by their dejections or “casts”, a complex mixture of organic matter, minerals and microbes. In casts, different processes such as organic matter mineralization and signal molecule production follow a complex temporal dynamics. An adaptation of root morphology to cast dynamics could allow an efficient nitrogen capture by the plant.Methods
The plant Brachypodium distachyon was grown in a laboratory experiment with different proportions of casts of increasing ages. Casts were labelled with 15N to quantify the plant N uptake from the casts. Plant biomass and morphology, especially root system structure, were analysed.Results
The age of casts had an effect on fine root length, highlighting the importance of the dynamics of cast maturation in root adaptation. Plant biomass production was affected by the interaction between the age and proportion of casts. A positive correlation between the 15N proportion in plant tissues and plant biomasses indicated that plants were more efficient in foraging N in casts than in the bulk soil.Conclusions
Our results suggested that both a timely adaptation of the root system structure and a significant proportion of casts are necessary to observe a positive effect of casts on plant growth.7.
Minggang Wang Arjen Biere Wim H. van der Putten T. Martijn Bezemer E. Pernilla Brinkman 《Plant and Soil》2017,412(1-2):215-233
Aims
A soil-plant-atmosphere continuum (SPAC) model for simulating tree transpiration (Ep) with variable water stress and water distribution in the soil is presented. The model couples a sun/shade approach for the canopy with a discrete representation of the soil in different layers and compartments.Methods
To test its performance, the outputs from the simulations are compared to those from an experiment using trees of olive ‘Picual’ and almond ‘Marinada’ with the root system split into two. Trees are subjected to different irrigation phases in which one side of the root system is dried out while the other is kept wet.Results
The model is able to accurately predict Ep (R2 and the efficiency factor (EF) around 0.9) in the two species studied. The use of a function that modulates the uptake capacity of a root according to the soil water content was necessary to track the fluxes observed from each split part. It was also appropriate to account for root clumping to match the measured and modelled leaf water potential.Conclusions
Coupling the sun/shade approach with the soil multi-compartment solution provides a useful tool to explore tree Ep for different degrees of water availability and distribution.8.
Aim
Our objectives were to compare effects of root charge properties on Al adsorption by the roots of rice that differed in Al-tolerance, and to examine effects of different nitrogen forms on charge properties of rice roots and Al adsorption.Methods
Streaming potential and chemical methods were used to measure root zeta potential and investigate Al chemical forms adsorbed on the roots of rice obtained from solution culture experiments.Results
Rice roots of the Al-sensitive variety Yangdao-6 carried greater negative charge than the Al-tolerant variety Wuyunjing-7, which meant the roots of Yangdao-6 adsorbed more exchangeable and complexed Al. When both rice varieties were grown in NH4 +-containing nutrient solutions, there were less functional groups and lower negative surface charge on their roots, which reduced Al adsorption compared to the rice grown in NO3 ? containing nutrient solutions. The decline in nutrient solution pH due to NH4 + uptake by rice roots was responsible for the reduced numbers of functional groups and the lower negative surface charge on the roots compared to the rice grown in NO3 ? containing solutions.Conclusions
Integrated root surface charge, as expressed by zeta potential, played an important role in Al adsorption by the roots of rice with different Al-tolerance.9.
Pei-Chun Lisa Hsu Maureen O’Callaghan Leo Condron Mark R. H. Hurst 《Plant and Soil》2018,425(1-2):43-55
Aims
The mechanisms by which rhizosphere bacteria increase the availability of mineral P precipitates for plant use are understudied. However, Paraburkholderia bryophila Ha185 is known to solubilize inorganic phosphate in vitro via a novel process. Therefore, this study aimed to demonstrate P solubilization by Ha185 in association with roots of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.).Methods
We developed a gnotobiotic plant assay to assess P solubilization by Ha185 on ryegrass roots under various nutrient conditions. A green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged derivative of Ha185 was used in conjunction with fluorescent microscopy and confocal microscopy to visualize colonization of ryegrass roots.Results
Ha185 solubilized mineral P (hydroxyapatite) in association with ryegrass roots and increased ryegrass growth by 20% under P-limited conditions. The GFP-tagged Ha185 strain colonized the rhizoplane and penetrated the primary root of ryegrass, possibly through “crack entry” at the point of lateral root emergence, but also by entering the epidermal cells via root hairs.Conclusions
Ha185 supported ryegrass growth under P-limited conditions, indicating this strain may improve availability of soil P for uptake by ryegrass. Tools developed in this study have broad application in the study of rhizobacteria-plant interactions.10.
Henri de Parseval Sébastien Barot Jacques Gignoux Jean-Christophe Lata Xavier Raynaud 《Plant and Soil》2017,412(1-2):97-114
Background and aims
Relevant soil properties and nutrient distributions influencing crop root growth might be different under no-till (NT) and mouldboard plough (MP) management. The possible different root systems within different managements might have key impact on crop nutrient uptake and consequently crop production. Our objective was to assess the long-term combined effects of tillage and phosphorus (P) fertilization on corn (Zea mays L.) root distribution and morphology.Methods
Corn root and soil samples were collected during the silking stage at five depths (0–5, 5–10, 10–20, 20–30 and 30–40 cm) and three horizontal distances perpendicular to the corn row (5, 15 and 25 cm) under MP and NT with three P fertilizations (0, 17.5, and 35 kg P ha?1) for a long-term (22 years) experiment in eastern Canada. Root morphology and soil properties were determined.Results
NT practice decreased corn root biomass by ?26 % compared to MP, mainly by decreasing the primary and secondary roots. Additionally, corn roots in NT tend to be more expansive on the surface layer with higher root length and surface densities for the depth of 0–5 cm at two sampling distances of 15 and 25 cm. The 35 kg P ha?1 rate increased the root biomass by 26 and 41 % compared to the 0 and 17.5 kg P ha?1 rates.Conclusions
No-tillage practice and low rates of P fertilization reduce corn roots. This is probably caused by the weed competition in NT and the continued downward P status with low P rates over 22 years.11.
Lenin D. Sarabia Berin A. Boughton Thusitha Rupasinghe Allison M. L. van de Meene Damien L. Callahan Camilla B. Hill Ute Roessner 《Metabolomics : Official journal of the Metabolomic Society》2018,14(5):63
Introduction
Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) is a technology that enables the visualization of the spatial distribution of hundreds to thousands of metabolites in the same tissue section simultaneously. Roots are below-ground plant organs that anchor plants to the soil, take up water and nutrients, and sense and respond to external stresses. Physiological responses to salinity are multifaceted and have predominantly been studied using whole plant tissues that cannot resolve plant salinity responses spatially.Objectives
This study aimed to use a comprehensive approach to study the spatial distribution and profiles of metabolites, and to quantify the changes in the elemental content in young developing barley seminal roots before and after salinity stress.Methods
Here, we used a combination of liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP–MS), and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI–MSI) platforms to profile and analyze the spatial distribution of ions, metabolites and lipids across three anatomically different barley root zones before and after a short-term salinity stress (150 mM NaCl).Results
We localized, visualized and discriminated compounds in fine detail along longitudinal root sections and compared ion, metabolite, and lipid composition before and after salt stress. Large changes in the phosphatidylcholine (PC) profiles were observed as a response to salt stress with PC 34:n showing an overall reduction in salt treated roots. ICP–MS analysis quantified changes in the elemental content of roots with increases of Na+ and decreases of K+ content.Conclusion
Our results established the suitability of combining three mass spectrometry platforms to analyze and map ionic and metabolic responses to salinity stress in plant roots and to elucidate tolerance mechanisms in response to abiotic stress, such as salinity stress.12.
C. Meneses T. Gonçalves S. Alquéres L. Rouws R. Serrato M. Vidal J. I. Baldani 《Plant and Soil》2017,412(1-2):133-142
Aims
Increasing the input and turnover of root tissue is considered to be one method that may increase carbon (C) inputs and storage in soil. The use of herbicide during pasture renewal (periodic re-sowing of pasture) is expected to increase root inputs and turnover as plants die. The objective of this study was to quantify the short-term impact of pasture renewal on root turnover and C input to soil of ryegrass-clover pastures.Methods
Pastures were labelled in the field using a 13C isotope pulse labelling method within 1 m2 clear chambers. Five daily labelling events were carried out during one week in paired treatment plots within 3 replicate paddocks. One plot per paddock was sprayed with herbicide and then the pasture was renewed by direct drilling of seed. The 13C of roots and soil (0–100 mm) was measured at regular intervals over an 89-day period.Results
Herbicide application caused an initial rapid turnover time of 17 days followed by a slower turnover time of 524 days, compared to unsprayed pasture which had a root turnover of 585 days. Faster root turnover following herbicide application resulted in greater cumulative C input to soil over 89 days with approximately double the C input in the sprayed treatment (3238 ± 378 kg C ha?1) compared to the unsprayed treatment (1726 ± 540 kg C ha?1).Conclusions
The use of glyphosate during pasture renewal increased root turnover and resulted in a greater short term cumulative C input to soil. This study provides the first values of root turnover and C input to soil during a pasture renewal event in New Zealand pasture systems and contributes to the understanding of how pasture roots may influence the soil C input following plant death in grassland systems.13.
Ya Wang You Qing Li Kang Lv Jin Jin Cheng Xiao Long Chen Ying Ge Xiang Yang Yu 《Plant and Soil》2018,430(1-2):99-111
Background and aims
Microalgae are ubiquitous in paddy soils. However, their roles in arsenic (As) accumulation and transport in rice plants remains unknown.Methods
Two green algae and five cyanobacteria were used in pot experiments under continuously flooded conditions to ascertain whether a microalgal inoculation could influence rice growth and rice grain As accumulation in plants grown in As-contaminated soils.Results
The microalgal inoculation greatly enhanced nutrient uptake and rice growth. The presence of representative microalga Anabaena azotica did not significantly differ the grain inorganic As concentrations but remarkably decreased the rice root and grain DMA concentrations. The translocation of As from roots to grains was also markedly decreased by rice inoculated with A. azotica. This subsequently led to a decrease in the total As concentration in rice grains.Conclusions
The results of the study indicate that the microalgal inoculation had a strong influence on soil pH, soil As speciation, and soil nutrient bioavailability, which significantly affected the rice growth, nutrient uptake, and As accumulation and translocation in rice plants. The results suggest that algae inoculation can be an effective strategy for improving nutrient uptake and reducing As translocation from roots to grains by rice grown in As-contaminated paddy soils.14.
David A. Huskey Gilberto Curlango-Rivera Robert A. Root Fushi Wen Mary Kay Amistadi Jon Chorover Martha C. Hawes 《Plant and Soil》2018,430(1-2):205-217
Aims
Most plants produce a root tip extracellular matrix that includes viable border cell populations programmed to disperse into soil. Like neutrophils, border cells export structures that trap pathogens and prevent root tip infection. Border cells also trap metals. The goal of this study was to determine if border cells trap Pb.Methods
Border cell responses to Pb were observed microscopically. Border cell impact on Pb-induced injury to roots was assessed using root growth assays. Pb removal from solution was measured using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Speciation of Pb associated with border cells was evaluated by synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS).Results
Increased border cell trap size and number occurred within minutes in response to Pb but not silicon (Si). Transient immersion of root tips into Pb after border cells were removed resulted in growth inhibition. Immersion of root tips and border cells into Pb solution resulted in significant removal of Pb. Si levels in the presence of root tips remained unchanged. The Pb speciation, measured with Pb LIII XAS, altered when reacted with border cells, indicating that direct binding by extracellular traps occurred.Conclusions
Border cells can trap Pb and prevent damage to the root tip.15.
Lawrie K. Brown Timothy S. George Konrad Neugebauer Philip J. White 《Plant and Soil》2017,412(1-2):115-132
Aims
Phosphorus (P) is frequently limiting crop production in agroecosystems. Large progress was achieved in understanding root traits associated with P acquisition efficiency (PAE, i.e. P uptake achieved under low P conditions). Most former studies were performed in controlled environments, and avoided the complexity of soil-root interactions. This may lead to an oversimplification of the root-soil relations. The aim of the present study was, therefore, to identify the dominant root and rhizosphere-related traits determining PAE, in contrasting soil conditions in the field.Methods
Twenty-three maize hybrids were grown at two contrasting P levels of a long-term P-fertilizer trial in two adjacent soil types: alkaline and neutral. Bulk soil, rhizosphere and root parameters were studied in relation to plant P acquisition.Results
Soil type had robust effect on PAE. Hybrids’ performance in one soil type was not related to that in the other soil type. In the neutral soil, roots exhibited higher specific root length, higher root/shoot ratio but lower PAE. Best performing hybrids in the neutral soil were characterized by top soil exploration, i.e., greater root surface and topsoil foraging. In contrast, in the alkaline soil, PAE and foraging traits were not correlated, P availability in the rhizosphere was greater than the bulk soil and phosphatase activity was higher, suggesting a ‘mining strategy’ in that case (i.e. traits that facilitate elevated P availability).Conclusions
These results indicate the key role of environmental factors for roots traits determining high PAE. The study highlights the need to consider soil properties when breeding for high PAE, as various soil types are likely to require different crop ideotypes.16.
Background and Aims
Rock fragments within topsoil have important effects on soil properties and plant growth. This study mainly aimed to investigate the relationships between rock fragments, soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) densities and vegetation biomass in an alpine steppe.Methods
Rock fragments, plant and soil samples were collected from four topographic positions (top, upper, lower, and bottom) on a hillslope.Results
Volumetric rock fragment content within the 0–30 cm soil profile varied from 17.8 to 30.5%, the upper position value was significantly greater (P < 0.05) than those at other positions. The highest aboveground biomass was observed at the lower position (921 kg ha?1), while the highest belowground biomass within the 0–30 cm profile was found at the upper position (4460 kg ha?1). More fine earth and plant litter input accompanied by lower C and N losses induced by rainfall erosion resulted in higher soil organic C and total N densities (28.6 Mg C ha?1 and 2.87 Mg N ha?1) at the lower position.Conclusions
Rock fragments may promote root growth but limit aboveground biomass production, and can therefore change the biomass distribution pattern. Our findings provide more evidence for scientifically assessing alpine steppe productivity.17.
Ellen L. Fry Amy L. Evans Craig J. Sturrock James M. Bullock Richard D. Bardgett 《Plant and Soil》2018,425(1-2):189-200
Aims
Fine root morphological traits are generally changed under soil nitrogen (N) enrichment, however, the underlying mechanism and functional significance are still not well understood. Our aims were to investigate the linkage of root morphology to anatomy, and its implication for root function at elevated soil N availability.Methods
Ingrowth cores were used to sample root tips (0–20 cm soil depth) from six temperate tree species growing in monoculture plantations at a common site in northeastern China. Root morphological and anatomical traits were concurrently measured, and their relationships were determined within and among species in both control and N fertilization (10 g N m?2y?1) plots.Results
Root diameter generally increased in all six species (non-significant for Phellodendron amurense) following N fertilization, which was caused by the increased root stele radius rather than cortical thickness. Congruently, N fertilization significantly decreased the ratio of cortical thickness to stele radius, but increased the ratio of total cross-sectional area of conduits to stele area in root tips across all species.Conclusions
The observed anatomical changes of root tips contributed to the alternations of morphological root traits following N fertilization, with potentially important impacts on root physiological functions, like increased water and nutrient transport.18.
Background and aims
We evaluated the influence of plant species and life forms on soil aggregate distribution among size-classes, total macroaggregate mass and aggregate mean weight diameter (MWD), and examined how specific root traits were related to these aggregation variables.Methods
We analyzed the soil attached to the roots (i.e., rhizospheric soil) under 13 Mediterranean species grown in monocultures in a common garden experiment for four years, and compared it to a bare soil. The mass distribution of aggregates in six size-classes and aggregate MWD were calculated, both on a rhizospheric soil and root biomass basis.Results
Compared to bare soil, macroaggregate mass increased by an average of 13% in the presence of plants, with a strong effect of species and life forms (both P < 0.0001); some species such as Sanguisorba minor showing increases of up to ~40%. Although the soil under graminoids had a greater macroaggregate mass, their MWD was lower than under non-woody dicots. Large (2000–1000 μm) and intermediate (1000–500 μm) macroaggregate mass increased with root mass and length density and decreased with root lignin concentration, while very large macroaggregate (6000–2000 μm) mass and the MWD increased with root soluble compound concentration.Conclusions
Species and life forms differently influenced the distribution of macroaggregates among size-classes and aggregate MWD. Easily-decomposable roots with traits related to resource acquisition (i.e., high fine root length, high water-soluble compound concentration) are more favorable for the development of water-stable macroaggregates than roots traits related to resource conservation (high lignin concentration, thick roots).19.
Magdalena Landl Katrin Huber Andrea Schnepf Jan Vanderborght Mathieu Javaux A. Glyn Bengough Harry Vereecken 《Plant and Soil》2017,415(1-2):99-116
Background and aims
The use of standard dynamic root architecture models to simulate root growth in soil containing macropores failed to reproduce experimentally observed root growth patterns. We thus developed a new, more mechanistic model approach for the simulation of root growth in structured soil.Methods
In our alternative modelling approach, we distinguish between, firstly, the driving force for root growth, which is determined by the orientation of the previous root segment and the influence of gravitropism and, secondly, soil mechanical resistance to root growth. The latter is expressed by its inverse, soil mechanical conductance, and treated similarly to hydraulic conductivity in Darcy’s law. At the presence of macropores, soil mechanical conductance is anisotropic, which leads to a difference between the direction of the driving force and the direction of the root tip movement.Results
The model was tested using data from the literature, at pot scale, at macropore scale, and in a series of simulations where sensitivity to gravity and macropore orientation was evaluated.Conclusions
Qualitative and quantitative comparisons between simulated and experimentally observed root systems showed good agreement, suggesting that the drawn analogy between soil water flow and root growth is a useful one.20.
Dongmei Zhou Jacqueline M. Chaparro Dayakar V. Badri Daniel K. Manter Jorge M. Vivanco Jianhua Guo 《Plant and Soil》2016,409(1-2):259-272