Current population estimate and distribution of the African buffalo in Chebera Churchura National Park,Ethiopia

An investigation into the population status and distribution of the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer Sparrman, 1779) in Chebera Churchura National Park, Ethiopia, was carried out during the wet and dry seasons of 2012–2015. This study tested the hypothesis that buffalo would demonstrate seasonal habitat preferences and changes in population density. Sample counts were carried out in an area of 1215 km². The estimated buffalo population was 5193 individuals, with the population density of 4.3/km². The population showed an increase from 2617 to 5194 individuals during 2006–2015. Males comprised 42.6%, while females 46.7% of the population. Age structure was dominated by adults, which constituted 52.5% of the total population. Subadults comprised 24.3% and young 12.4% of the population. Larger herds of up to 30 individuals were observed during the wet season, and smaller herds of a minimum of four individuals were seen during the dry season. The mean herd sizes during the wet and dry seasons were 29.59 and 16.95, respectively. They were observed more in the riverine vegetation types during the dry season. Of the total, 57.6% utilized riverine habitat during the dry season, whereas 39.8% used this habitat during the wet season. Relative abundance of food sources, green vegetation cover and availability of water were the major factors governing their distribution in the present study area.     

Diurnal activity budget of African buffalo (Syncerus caffer Sparrman, 1779) in Chebera Churchura National Park,Ethiopia

One of the fundamental questions in animal ecology concerns the activity pattern of animals and the environmental and intrinsic factors that influence such dynamics. This study tested the hypotheses that activity time budgets of the African buffalo appeared to vary by season and times of day and predicted that buffalo would express unequal proportion of time for different activity patterns during the wet and dry seasons in Chebera Churchura National Park (CCNP). An investigation on the diurnal activity budget of the African buffalo was carried out during the wet and dry seasons of 2012–2014 in the Chebera Churchura National Park, Ethiopia, using focal‐animal sampling method. Buffalo spent a greater proportion of the time in feeding and resting/ruminating activities in both the wet and dry seasons. Feeding and resting (lying down and standing) were the predominant activities (87.14% of the diurnal active period), 48.95% time spent feeding during the dry season and 44.91% during the wet season. There was a significant decrease in feeding and an increase in resting from dry seasons to wet seasons. Daytime grazing and resting periods during the wet season were estimated to be 5.39 h and 4.98 h, respectively. Morning and the late afternoon activity peaks were more pronounced during the dry season than the wet season. Therefore, feeding and resting time was influenced by the time of day and the seasons. But there were no significant difference in time allocation for other activities in both the wet and dry seasons. The study has implications for understanding animal activity budget across species, particularly relationships between temperature and season.     

Population status and structure of mountain nyala in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia

The study on the population status and structure of mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) was carried out in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia during the wet and dry seasons of 2000/2001. Total counts were carried out in an area of 13.1 km². The count ranged between 682 and 732 individuals. Females comprised 62.9% while males 27.4%. The calf ratio was 9.7%. The group structure of the animals varied with season. Large herds were frequently observed during the wet season and smaller groups during the dry season. Group size changed seasonally. In both seasons, 7–12 individuals were the frequent group size formation. The maximum group (62) was observed during the wet season. The population trend of the animal from 1975 to 1990 indicated a recovery and increase. But between 1990 and 1995 the population showed a continuous and steep decline. However, between 1995 and 2000 the population trend showed a better condition when compared with the previous years.     

埃塞俄比亚Senkele Swayne保护区斯韦恩麋羚的种群现状与结构

于2005年10月至2006年4月调查了埃塞俄比亚森可勒斯韦恩麋羚保护区旱季和湿季斯韦恩麋羚(Alcelaphus buselaphus swaynei)的种群现状与结构.根据植被类型、道路和沟谷,将研究区划分为5个区域,并且调查了保护区外的一块休耕农地.利用全部计数法计数了每个区域内的斯韦恩麋羚,在28 km2的区域内共统计到283只(湿季)和351只(旱季)麋羚,湿季和旱季的麋羚数量变化显著,其季节间差异是由旱季的出生高峰造成的.斯韦恩麋羚种群中雌性个体占42.7%、雄性占36.0%、幼羚占21.3%.某些区域的麋羚数量要高于其它区域,且无论湿季或旱季斯韦恩麋羚多集中在狼尾草高草地中.斯韦恩麋羚的种群结构随季节而变化,其大集群经常出现在湿季而旱季集群较小.斯韦恩麋羚的种群动态因保护程度的不同在不同时期呈不规则性变化     

The numbers and distribution of buffalo in the Ruwenzori National Park*, Uganda

The buffalo (Syncerus coffer (Sparrman)) in the Ruwenzori National Park, Uganda were censused by means of aerial survey. Details of earlier censuses of buffalo from the air are given. Herds were located by flying along flight lines 1–6 km apart at a height of 300 m above ground. Buffalo in small herds and in bachelor groups containing less than thirty animals were counted individually but most herds were photographed and the number of buffalo counted from the prints. Two full photographic counts were made in November 1968 and December 1969 and subsequently, counts of herds only were made four times a year during each wet and dry season. The total numbers of buffalo were estimated from the herd counts on the basis of the mean herd size and percentage of bachelors recorded earlier. A total of 17 835 buffalo, comprising 16 749 in 165 herds and 1086 bachelor bulls, was recorded in 1968 and 18 040 buffalo made up of 17 141 in 162 herds and 899 bachelors were counted in 1969. The mean herd size was 101-5 in 1968 and 105-8 in 1969 with bachelors representing 6-1% and 5-0% of the totals in 1968 and 1969 respectively. The mean size of the bachelor groups was 4–7 and 3-3 in 1968 and 1969 respectively. The density of the buffalo was the same each year at twelve animals per sq. km. If only the preferred habitat is considered, the density becomes thirty-eight buffalo per sq. km. The mean areas occupied by a single herd were 9-4 and 9-6 sq. km in 1968 and 1969 respectively. The mean area of preferred habitat used by one herd was 2–9 sq. km each year. It is concluded that herd counts are not a satisfactory method for assessing the total buffalo population although they have value as indices, provided the same observer is used. However, they do suggest in the present work that there is a slight but definite seasonal movement of buffalo into forested areas or towards permanent water during the dry season.     

Mitochondrial sequence-based evolutionary analysis of riverine–swamp hybrid buffaloes of India indicates novel maternal differentiation and domestication patterns

In this study, mitochondrial D-loop sequence data on riverine, swamp and hybrid buffaloes from India have been generated and compared with other reported Indian riverine, Chinese and Bangladeshi swamp buffalo populations. Sequence analysis revealed the presence of 132 haplotypes, with a haplotype diversity of 0.9611 ± 0.0045 and a nucleotide diversity of 0.04801 ± 0.00126. For the first time, the existence of riverine–swamp hybrids among the Indian Chilika buffalo population has been recorded, having 49 chromosomes, which was also confirmed by mitochondrial haplotype sharing between Chilika and Indian swamp as well as Chinese swamp buffalo populations in the network analysis. Phylogenetic analysis documents the sharing of reported pre-domestication haplogroups ‘SA1’, ‘SA2’, ‘SA3’ and ‘SB1’ between the Chilika and swamp buffalo populations of India, China and Bangladesh, an indication of the migration of swamp buffaloes towards Bangladesh and adjoining lower parts of India and north towards Chinese domestication sites. The results have also been supplemented by multidimension scaling, grouping Indian and Chinese swamp buffaloes more closely together with Bangladeshi buffaloes, but into a separate quadrant, whereas Chilika grouped away from other riverine as well as swamp buffaloes. These findings thus confirm the previous reports that the northeast region of India, close to the Indo-China border, is the point of evolution of swamp buffaloes with multiple sites of domestication.     

An ecological study of small rodents in the thicket-clump savanna of Lengwe National Park, Malawi

A community of small rodents was studied in thicket-clump and grassland savanna of Lengwe National Park, Malawi, from September 1984 to June 1985. Nine species were recorded on a 1·1 ha grid and five assessment lines, using a capture-mark-release technique. The three commonest species (and their percentage proportions) were Mastomys natalensis (47%), Acomys spinosissimus (24%) and Saccostomus campestris (11%). Population numbers on the grid fluctuated from–30 individuals/ha, and the numbers on the assessment lines fluctuated from–57 individuals. There were two peaks of population numbers during the year: the first was in the early wet season (when individuals emigrated from dry season refugia and there was limited reproduction) and the second was in the mid dry season (when young born at the end of the wet season entered the trappable population). The population was comprised mainly of subadults in the late dry season, adults and some young in the wet season, and young and subadults in the early and mid dry seasons. Population survival rates were low with only 30–50% of individuals surviving to the following month. The magnitude of population fluctuations are related to the strong seasonality of climate, flooding and grass characteristics; in this respect, the community of small mammals in Lengwe National Park shows similarities to those of the Kafue Valley in Zambia and the Chobe Valley in Botswana.     

Population ecology of the giant forest hog,Hylochoerus meinertzhageni in Chebera Churchura National Park,Ethiopia

Population, feeding habit, distribution and activity patterns of the giant forest hog (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni) were studied in Chebera Churchura National Park (CCNP), Ethiopia, using line transect sample counts. Population estimate of the hogs was 845 individuals. Among the counted individuals, 42.4% were males and 57.6% were females. Among them, 32.8% were adults, 26.9% were subadults, and 40.3% were piglets. Large sounders of up to 20 individuals were seen during the wet season. They were seen in all habitat types in CCNP with higher abundance in the riverine vegetation. Availability of food, green vegetation cover and water were factors governing distribution of forest hogs in the study area. Grass was the major food item of the hogs (90%), mainly of Panicum sp., Acalypha psilostachya, Cissapelos rigidifolia, Psilotrichum gnaphalobryum and Abutilon ceclii. Feeding was the major activity for which 49.7% of the active daytime was used. Resting (lying down, standing and wallowing) was the next major activity, for which they spent 38.8% of the daytime, followed by other activities (11.5%). Morning and late afternoon activity peaks were more intensive during the dry season. This female‐biased giant forest hog population is expected to sustain in CCNP.     

Prey selection and annual harvest of game in a rural Zambian community

The selection and hunting patterns of Valley Bisa hunters were studied as part of a broader ecological investigation of human communities between the two sections of the Luangwa Valley Game Reserves in Zambia. This article provides information on the frequency and duration of hunts recorded for 1 year, yields of individual hunters, prey selection, frequency of kill, community meat supplies and the effect of human and carnivore predation on population levels on a study area of some 155 km². Individuals who hunted were classified into four categories–resident, transient, occasional, and official, dependent upon their role in the community, length of time spent on the study area and their village of primary residence. The most frequent hunters were residents followed in rank order by officials, transients and occasionals. Hunts were of shorter duration during the dry season, when game was close to villages, than during the wet season. Generally hunters who owned or had access to modern weapons were more successful in their pursuits of game than were those who used muzzle-loading guns. A total of 27 451 kg of meat (carcass yield) was made available to 466 local residents during the course of the year; 40% of this was attributed to the activities of the game guards. Valley Bisa hunters killed primarily buffalo, impala, warthogs, and waterbuck; most of these were males and adults. The kills recorded for carnivores suggest that they took primarily female buffalo and zebra. There was no evidence to suggest that either type of predation was damaging to the game herds on the study area.     

Elephants caught in the middle: impacts of war, fences and people on elephant distribution and abundance in the Caprivi Strip, Namibia

We conducted wet [26 March–4 April 2003 (Apr03)] and dry [1–8 November 2005 (Nov05)] season aerial surveys of African elephants ( Loxodonta africana Blumenbach) in the Caprivi Strip, Namibia to provide an updated status report on elephant numbers and distribution and assist with a historical analysis of elephant distribution and abundance in the Caprivi Strip. During the wet season when water was available in seasonal pans, elephants were widely distributed throughout the survey area. In contrast, during the dry season, a majority of elephant herds occurred within 30 km of the perennial Kwando, Linyanti and Okavango rivers and few herds occurred within the West Caprivi Game Reserve where water in the seasonal pans was limited. We estimated 5318 elephants for the 7731-km² survey area (0.71 elephants km⁻²) for the Apr03 wet season survey and 6474 elephants for the 8597-km² survey area (0.75 elephants km⁻²) for the Nov05 dry season survey. Based on our aerial surveys and reports of elephant numbers and distribution from historical aerial surveys and telemetry studies, civil war, veterinary fences and human activities appear to have effected changes in African elephant abundance, distribution and movements in the Caprivi Strip, Namibia since 1988 when the first comprehensive aerial surveys were conducted.     

Population status and habitat preference of Soemmerring’s gazelle in Alledeghi Wildlife Reserve,Eastern Ethiopia

This study was undertaken to determine the current population size, structure and habitat preference of Soemmerring's gazelle [Nanger soemmerringii (Cretzschmar 1828)] in the Alledeghi Wildlife Reserve, NE Ethiopia. Animals were counted, both during dry and wet seasons, along 12 line transects each in three habitat types (grassland, tree‐scattered grassland and bushland) in 2015/16. Habitat type had nonsignificant effect on mean population density of Soemmerring's gazelle, but wet season mean density was significantly higher than dry season mean density. Estimated weighted mean (±95% CI) population density of the species in the reserve was 1.90 (±0.17) and 5.99 (±0.370) individuals/km² during the dry and wet seasons, respectively. Total population size of the species in the Alledeghi Wildlife Reserve was estimated at 826 ± 77 and 2,562 ± 158 individuals during the dry and wet seasons, respectively. Over half of the total population of Soemmerring's gazelle was represented by adult females during both seasons. Seasonal habitat preference of Soemmerring's gazelle was statistically significant, with greater preference for grassland habitat during wet season and for bushland habitat during dry season. In conclusion, this study has provided valuable data that will be used as a baseline for future population monitoring.     

Population status,structure and activity patterns of the Bohor reedbuck Redunca redunca in the north of the Bale Mountains National Park,Ethiopia

The Bohor reedbucks Redunca redunca (Pallas, 1767) were studied in the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP), Ethiopia to assess their population ecology and activity patterns. The total count method was used to assess population size. Activity patterns of a herd were studied with five minutes recording intervals. There were 406 Bohor reedbucks in the study area of which 96.8% (n = 393) was confined to the Gaysay‐Adelay area. The population was female‐biased. Excluding juveniles, 57.1% (n = 232) was females and 33.5% (n = 136) was males. More adults (71.7%, n = 291) were observed than sub‐adults (18.9%, n = 77) and juveniles (9.4%, n = 38). The herd size of Bohor reedbucks varied from 3 to 5. Herds were seen in aggregations of up to 59 individuals during the dry season in swamp grassland habitat. The maximum number observed in such aggregations during the wet season was 38. The diurnal activity pattern showed feeding peaks early in the morning and late in the afternoon, with resting during the mid‐day. Two feeding peaks were observed in the nocturnal activity phase: one during dusk and the other around midnight. In contradiction to the general concept of occurrence of smaller herds during the dry season, the Bohor reedbucks aggregate in swamps during the dry season. They were also active during night and day time.     

Activity pattern of the brown howler monkeyAlouatta fusca,Geoffroy 1812, in a forest fragment of southeastern Brazil

A group of six brown howlers was studied during a year in the Santa Genebra Reserve, a 250ha-forest fragment near the city of Campinas, State of São Paulo, southeastern Brasil. On average, the group rested for 64% of the daylight hours and feeding and moving occupied 18% and 13% of this period, respectively. A greater proportion of time was spent feeding during dry season (24%) than the wet season (15%), and the reverse observed for time spent resting (59% and 69% of the group's daylight hours during dry and wet seasons, respectively). The increase of resting and decrease of feeding during wet season were related to the percentage of leaves in the group's diet, high even during the fruiting season (wet season). However, additional data of other groups are necessary to draw conclusions about the effects of habitat disturbance on this population.     

Why did the buffalo cross the park? Resource shortages,but not infections,drive dispersal in female African buffalo (Syncerus caffer)

Dispersal facilitates population health and maintains resilience in species via gene flow. Adult dispersal occurs in some species, is often facultative, and is poorly understood, but has important management implications, particularly with respect to disease spread. Although the role of adult dispersal in spreading disease has been documented, the potential influence of disease on dispersal has received little attention. African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) are wide‐ranging and harbor many pathogens that can affect nearby livestock. Dispersal of adult buffalo has been described, but ecological and social drivers of buffalo dispersal are poorly understood. We investigated drivers of adult buffalo dispersal during a 4‐year longitudinal study at Kruger National Park, South Africa. We monitored the spatial movement of 304 female buffalo in two focal areas using satellite and radio collars, capturing each buffalo every 6 months to assess animal traits and disease status. We used generalized linear mixed models to determine whether likelihood of dispersal for individual female buffalo was influenced by animal traits, herd identity, environmental variables, gastrointestinal parasites, or microparasite infections. The likelihood and drivers of buffalo dispersal varied by herd, area, and year. In the Lower Sabie herd, where resources were abundant, younger individuals were more likely to disperse, with most dispersal occurring in the early wet season and during an unusually dry year, 2009. In the resource‐poor Crocodile Bridge area, buffalo in poor condition were most likely to disperse. Our findings suggest that dispersal of female buffalo is driven by either seasonal (Lower Sabie) or perhaps social (Crocodile Bridge) resource restriction, indicating resource limitation and dispersal decisions are tightly linked for this social ungulate. We found no direct effects of infections on buffalo dispersal, assuaging fears that highly infectious individuals might be more prone to dispersing, which could accelerate the spatial spread of infectious diseases.     

The effect of drought on the large mammal populations of Zambezi riverine woodlands

Large mammals were counted in Zambezi alluvial woodlands and on the adjacent ecotone in the north of Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe, from April 1981 until October 1989. Densities of all large herbivores on the alluvium in the daytime increased during the dry season. Year-to-year variation was studied by comparing end-of-dry-season densities. Flooding of the Zambezi River, controlled by Kariba Dam 100 km upstream, ceased in 1981 and the densities of all species on the alluvium declined in 1982. Rainfall was low in 1982 and very low in 1983 and 1984. The density of buffalo in the study area declined, owing to high mortality and a change in habitat utilization (buffalo herds spent more time in the south of the park). Densities of other species were high during the drought, but the densities of waterbuck, kudu, eland, bushbuck and warthog declined in 1985. Zebra density declined on the ecotone, but not on the alluvium. The densities of eland and kudu increased in 1986 and 1988, respectively, but the densities of the other species were still low in 1989. Impala density on the alluvium in October was related to rainfall during the preceding wet season and was high in drought years. Elephant density declined after a management cull. Rhinoceros density decreased by > 90% during the 1985/6 wet season, as a result of poaching and captures. The long-term decline in the densities of grazers was probably due primarily to the cessation of flooding by the Zambezi River, rather than to low local rainfall in some years. During the drought, the large grazers (e.g. buffalo) died before the smaller grazers (e.g. warthog). Waterbuck density declined less than the density of other grazers, because waterbuck could cross to vegetated sandbanks in the Zambezi River.     

Seasonality in foraging behaviour of Constrictotermes cyphergaster (Termitidae, Nasutitermitinae) in the Caatinga of Northeastern Brazil

The foraging activity of Constrictotermes cyphergaster was investigated in the Caatinga of Northeast Brazil. Eight colonies were monitored for seven days, during both dry and wet seasons. Foraging activity occurred in exposed columns at night, generally between 22:00 and 05:00 h. During the wet season, foraging activity was significantly higher, with one bout every 1.6 ± 0.2 days, than the dry season, when foraging bouts were performed every 1.9 ± 0.3 days. Foraging activity throughout the study colonies presented high temporal synchronization. In both seasons, foraging was negatively correlated with air temperature and positively correlated with humidity. The foraging trails were often re-utilized and ranged from 1 to 18.5 meters in length. No difference between seasons in the area potentially utilized by the study colonies was observed. Approximately 51000 individuals participated in the foraging bout during the dry season, whereas some 87000 individuals participated in the foraging bout during the wet season. This corresponds to 43 and 74% of the estimated total nest population for the dry and wet seasons respectively. The average ratio soldiers:workers during foraging was 1:1.2 in the dry season and 1:2 in the wet season. The higher frequency and number of individuals foraging during the wet season in the present study are likely to be a strategy from C. cyphergaster to store energy reserves to be utilized during the dry season. Received 28 November 2005; revised 29 May 2006 and 16 August 2006; accepted 1 September 2006.     

Seasonal variation in forages utilized by the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in the succulent thicket of South Africa

The succulent thicket of the Eastern Cape, South Africa, is characterized by densely wooded vegetation that is dominated by succulents with little understory of ephemeral and weakly perennial grasses and forbs. Studies have developed around the question: how do bulk grazers such as the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) survive in the succulent thicket? In this study, the diet of the African buffalo at the Great Fish River Reserve (GFRR) was studied in two seasons (wet and dry). The diet profile was assessed from faecal matter, using the micro‐histological analysis method. During the wet season, grass species contributed 72% to the diet while 28% was contributed by browse species. In the dry season there was a significant increase in the intake of browse by 5% (χ² = 19.94, df = 11, P < 0.05). There were species that were neglected in the wet season but became principal dietary items in the dry season, these included Setaria neglecta, Cymbopogon plurinodis, Capparis sepiaria and Portulacaria afra. Diet quality, as estimated from faecal samples, suggested that the buffalo were nutritionally stable; however, the presence of sarcoptic mange in the buffalo suggests nutritional stress.     

Effect of age,pregnancy, and tuberculosis status on oocyte parameters in African buffalo

In the past decades, the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) population has steadily declined; an estimated reduction of 31.2% over 3 generations has resulted in classifying it as near threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Therefore, the aim of this work was a preliminary evaluation of the size and number of ovarian follicles and oocyte quality and quantity in African buffaloes in relationship to age, tuberculosis, and pregnancy status to assess feasibility of in vitro embryo production (IVEP) as a tool for conservation and propagation of this species. The study occurred during the winter dry season (Jul–Aug) of 2018 within Huluhluwe-Imfolozi National Park in Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa during the routine culling procedures of African buffalo carried out at the park by the provincial authorities as means of disease management and population control. We obtained ovaries from 39 adults and 10 juveniles, and transported them to the field laboratory where we counted follicles, collected oocytes by aspiration and slicing, and classified oocytes according to their morphology. Adult animals had more small and medium follicles compared to juveniles (small: 14.5 ± 0.1 [SE] vs. 14.0 ± 0.1; medium: 4.6 ± 0.7 vs. 2.0 ± 1.3); however, juvenile animals had more cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs). Pregnancy and tuberculosis status did not affect COC recovery rate and quality. The oocyte recovery rate is comparable to cattle and higher than in water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Therefore, our results suggest that IVEP could be an effective tool for conservation of valuable germplasm in African buffalo. The use of aspiration, using an 18-gauge needle and syringe, followed by slicing the ovary with a scalpel blade increased the recovery of suitable COCs (aspiration = 37.2 ± 3.02%; aspiration and slicing = 46.1 ± 3.02%), supporting the use of aspiration and slicing to optimize oocyte collection for conservation of African buffalo.     

Demographics and parasites of African buffalo (Syncerus caffer Sparrman, 1779) in Ruaha National Park,Tanzania

The number of African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer Sparrman, 1779) inhabiting Ruaha National Park, Tanzania, is thought to be declining, but little data exist to determine whether the population is actually in decline. As an initial phase of collecting population data, we conducted demographic surveys, faecal egg counts and gastrointestinal parasite identification in Ruaha's buffalo herds in September 2011 and 2013. Most herds encountered in the two surveys appeared to be in good health, but with fewer calves in 2013 compared with 2011. The herd‐level body condition score was positively associated with the number of calves per 100 cows after adjusting for year, and the lower number of offspring in 2013 could possibly be associated with a below average rainfall in the 2012–2013 rainy season. Mean herd‐level egg counts ranged from 83 to 140 and from 28 to 113 eggs per g faeces in 2011 and 2013, respectively. Haemonchus, Nematodirus, Cooperia and Oesophagostomum spp., as well as coccidian oocysts, were detected in the population. Monitoring herd demographics and baseline health parameters over time will provide insight into population performance, increase the understanding of population stressors and contribute to buffalo conservation within Ruaha National Park and other protected areas of Africa.     

The natural regulation of buffalo populations in East Africa: Introduction and resource requirements*

Although it would appear that regulation in animal populations is highly probable, the evidence for it in nature is meagre. The various hypotheses on regulation are outlined in order to point out the critical evidence needed to test them. A population of the East African buffalo has been studied since 1965 with a view to obtaining this information. The ecological requirements including habitat selection and food selection are described. Using Association analysis the ‘best available’ habitat for buffalo was found to be a combination of riverine grassland and forest. This was most pronounced in the dry season when other habitats became less suitable due to the grass drying out and becoming unsuitable food. The movements between vegetation types were correlated with changes in rainfall and with the area of burnt ground after grass fires. Hence the movements could be attributed to changes in the food supply. Within the ‘best available’ habitats the buffalo ate grass exclusively but not all grass was food. The most preferred component was the combined grass leaf and leaf base, this being the most nutritious part of the plant. This component was predominant in the diet during the rains but declined to a minimum by the end of the dry season despite the animals' ability to select for it.