Occupancy and demographics of red river hog Potamochoerus porcus on Tiwai Island,Sierra Leone

The red river hog (Potamochoerus porcus, Linnaeus) is a species of Suidae with populations ranging from western to central Africa. Little is known about the population status of red river hog, and few studies have investigated habitat characteristics associated with their occupancy which is critical in determining possible reasons behind suspected population declines. We used camera traps and site occupancy models to examine the effects of habitat covariates on occupancy of red river hog on Tiwai Island and in surrounding forests of Sierra Leone during two field seasons, 2008–2011. We also estimated group size and composition and growth patterns of juveniles. In both sampling periods, understory vegetation strongly influenced red river hog occupancy with greatest association with riparian and swamp vegetation types. Red river hogs seemed to avoid habitats of high human impact such as farmbush and secondary growth forests. Average group size was 2.46 ± 0.28 (SE) hogs per group. Growth patterns of juveniles suggested the majority of piglets were born during the middle of dry season (January–February). Our research suggests landscape use by red river hog is influenced by presence of riparian habitats with dense vegetation.     

Seasonal diet changes of the forest hog (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni Thomas) based on the carbon isotopic composition of hair

The stable carbon and nitrogen isotope composition of forest hog hair is used to estimate seasonal diet changes in forest hogs from Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda. This detailed record of diet shows that the forest hogs on Mweya Peninsula consume up to 20% grass at the beginning of the rainy season, and very little grass during the rest of the year. Correlation of isotope patterns between individuals from the same sounder show that a single animal records the group behaviour.     

Population structure and ecology of the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer Sparrman, 1779) in Chebera Churchura National Park,Ethiopia

An investigation of population structure and ecology of the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer Sparrman, 1779) was carried out in the Chebera Churchura National Park, Ethiopia during the wet and dry seasons of 2005–2006. Sample counts of African buffaloes were carried out in an area of 1,215 km². The estimated population of buffalo was 2,617 individuals. Males comprised 35.0%, while females 52.8% of the population. The remaining 12% of the population was young of both sexes and of all ages of unknown sex. It was difficult to categorize the young into male and female in the field, as their primary sexual characteristics were not easily visible. Male to female sex ratio was 1.00 : 1.51. Age structure was dominated by adults, which constituted 72.06% of the total population. Subadults comprised 22.02%, and young accounted for 5.9% of the population. Larger herds of up to 27 individuals were observed during the wet season and smaller herds of eight individuals during the dry season. The mean herd size during wet and dry seasons was 24.81 and 7.77, respectively. The African buffaloes were distributed in four habitat types such as grasslands, woodlands, montane forests and riverine habitat in the study area. They were observed more in the riverine vegetation types during the dry season. Relative abundance of food resources, green vegetation cover and water availability in the area were the major factors governing their distribution in the present study area. They spent a greater proportion of the time in feeding and resting/ruminating activities. On the average, 49.7% of the daytime was spent in feeding, and 38.75% of the day on resting (lying down and standing). Morning and the late afternoon activity peaks were more pronounced during the dry season than the wet season.     

The importance of sediment in the grazing ecology and size class interactions of an armored catfish,Ancistrus spinosus

Synopsis Armored catfish, Ancistrus spinosus, graze substrates in a central Panamanian stream. They ingest both attached algae and sediment that settles onto substrates. During the dry season, this sediment is organic-rich (18–24% ash-free dry weight), and is derived from decomposing periphyton and vegetation from the surrounding, largely deciduous forest. This sediment, however, is not a food for Ancistrus, and in fact imposes energetic costs. These costs were estimated to be 15–22% of the daily energy budgets of 10 g individuals held under experimental conditions. In the stream, the presence of thick sediment on substrates increases the tendency for small Ancistrus to seek out larger individuals or areas cleared by them. Clearing of substrates by larger individuals may be particularly important to smaller Ancistrus during the dry season, when sediment-free substrate in stream pools is in short supply.     

Current population estimate and distribution of the African buffalo in Chebera Churchura National Park,Ethiopia

An investigation into the population status and distribution of the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer Sparrman, 1779) in Chebera Churchura National Park, Ethiopia, was carried out during the wet and dry seasons of 2012–2015. This study tested the hypothesis that buffalo would demonstrate seasonal habitat preferences and changes in population density. Sample counts were carried out in an area of 1215 km². The estimated buffalo population was 5193 individuals, with the population density of 4.3/km². The population showed an increase from 2617 to 5194 individuals during 2006–2015. Males comprised 42.6%, while females 46.7% of the population. Age structure was dominated by adults, which constituted 52.5% of the total population. Subadults comprised 24.3% and young 12.4% of the population. Larger herds of up to 30 individuals were observed during the wet season, and smaller herds of a minimum of four individuals were seen during the dry season. The mean herd sizes during the wet and dry seasons were 29.59 and 16.95, respectively. They were observed more in the riverine vegetation types during the dry season. Of the total, 57.6% utilized riverine habitat during the dry season, whereas 39.8% used this habitat during the wet season. Relative abundance of food sources, green vegetation cover and availability of water were the major factors governing their distribution in the present study area.     

Fruit Availability and Habitat Use by Chimpanzees in the Kalinzu Forest,Uganda: Examination of Fallback Foods

We studied seasonal change in habitat use by chimpanzees in the Kalinzu Forest, Uganda. The forest comprises various types of vegetation. For each vegetation type, we compared number of chimpanzees (per km²) that used the vegetation with fruit availability in different census periods. We estimated the number of chimpanzees by nest count and fruit availability via density of fallen fruit. The mixed mature forest contained a large amount of fruit during the high-fruiting season, but it decreased rapidly in the low-fruiting season. The number of chimpanzees also decreased in mixed mature forest in approximate proportion with fruit availability. In the Parinari-dominated mature and secondary forests, both fruit availability and number of chimpanzees were very low throughout the study. In the Musanga-dominated secondary forest, the number of chimpanzees increased toward the low-fruiting season, though the fruit availability decreased slightly. A multiple regression analysis showed that various fruits had significant effects on the number of chimpanzees during the high-fruiting season, while only Musanga leo-errerae had a significant effect during the low-fruiting season. The results suggest that the fruit of Musanga leo-errerae functions as a fallback food, and a combination of different vegetation types supports the chimpanzees in the Kalinzu Forest.     

Plant diversity in managed sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn.) forests of Gorakhpur, India: species composition, regeneration and conservation

The sal (Shorea robusta) forest vegetation of Sohagibarawa Wildlife Sanctuary, Gorakhpur, India was analysed to assess plant diversity, regeneration pattern and the status of species conservation. A total of 208 plant species representing 165 genera and 72 families were recorded. Species richness, mean density and basal area of individuals in the observed forest were compared with those of other sal-dominated forests of India. The sal forest was rich in Papilionaceae (23 species), which contributed maximally to the total number of individuals of <30 cm girth. After sal, density was maximal for a leguminous shrub, Moghania chappar. In addition to the usual recruitment by seed, a number of species also showed non-seed regeneration through storage roots, sprouts or ramet proliferation. The individuals regenerating as sprouts from underground stem or storage organs contributed significantly to the sum total of individuals/ha. As much as 45.5% of the total individuals were of ramet origin and shared 10.6% of the total species richness of the forest. In stands facing moderate to low disturbance, thickets of dense entangled mass of vegetation, predominantly composed of thorny lianas, were identified that usually contained less common and rare species like Rauwolfia serpentina, Desmodium latifolium, Crotalaria alata and Gloriosa superba in addition to the frequent ones. These thickets help to conserve the special habitat conditions and provide protection for natural regeneration of several infrequent and rare plant species and thus contribute towards the maintenance and in situ conservation of overall diversity of recurrently disturbed forest vegetation.     

Effects of environmental factors on the distribution of flagship species in Bomfobiri Wildlife Sanctuary,Kumawu, Ghana: Implications for conservation and ecotourism development

Sustainable ecotourism development and conservation depend on understanding factors that affect flagship species. This study analysed environmental factors and their effects on flagship species: African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), red-river hog (Potamochoerus porcus), olive baboon (Papio anubis), duiker (Cephalophus spp.), and crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) distribution in Bomfobiri Wildlife Sanctuary (BWS). Secondary data (camp reports 2017–2019) showed flagship species distribution across four vegetation types in 14 sites. Field observations were used to reconstruct camp report information using GPS coordinates to show animal distribution. Environmental factors were assessed based on the scope and severity of their threats to the species. PAST ver.3.06 was used to analyse animal and vegetation data. A total of 995 individual animals were recorded. Riverine forest (n = 325) had the highest, followed by semi-deciduous (n = 316), and woodland Savanna (n = 192). Bushfire was the major predictive factor on animal distribution, followed by grazing pressure, farming activities, elevation, and erosion. These findings imply that an increased scale of disturbances reduces the chance of sighting flagship animals. A higher concentration of these species in riverine and semi-deciduous forests calls for increased patrols as a conservation measure. Constructing viewing platforms and hiking trails in areas of higher animal activity would improve ecotourism development.     

EFFECT OF REMOVAL OF CO-OCCURRING SPECIES ON DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF ERYTHRONIUM AMERICANUM (LILIACEAE), A SPRING EPHEMERAL

Growth of spring ephemerals in northern forests is limited to early spring when competition for resources from other species is at a minimum. The abundance of resources during this vernal period suggests that spring ephemerals might grow continuously over a wide range of sites, but distributions tend to be patchy. I hypothesized that co-occurring plants that grow later in the season compete for resources to a limited extent, but that competition from these other species is sufficient to restrict the spread of spring ephemerals into unoccupied sites. Population dynamics of Erythronium americanum were compared on sites at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire subjected to varying removals of cooccurring plants. During the 3-year period after removal of only overstory trees the density and frequency of occurrence of Erythronium increased by 225% and 180%, respectively, and removal of all co-occurring vegetation after 1 year's regrowth had an even more pronounced effect (400% and 195% increases, respectively). The abundance of Erythronium in the undisturbed forest did not change over the 3-year period. Elevational distribution of Erythronium also was directly related to the extent of removal of summer plants. Recruitment was mostly vegetative, but flower production on the tree removal site increased by a factor of six, and some distant sites apparently were colonized by seedlings. For several years following large-scale disturbances that eliminate co-occurring vegetation, the vernal growing season is lengthened and resources are more available, and spring ephemerals such as Erythronium americanum exploit these resource-rich opportunities to expand populations and colonize new sites. It appears that, as forest succession proceeds, the size and survival of newly established colonies are gradually constrained by competition from co-occurring species that grow later in the season.     

PHENOLOGY,SEED DISPERSAL,AND COLONIZATION IN MUNTINGIA CALABURA,A NEOTROPICAL PIONEER TREE

In this paper we describe the phenology, fruiting ecology, and colonization ability of a widespread neotropical pioneer tree, Muntingia calabura (Eleocarpaceae), in Costa Rican dry tropical forest. Individuals of M. calabura grow rapidly, flower at <2 yr age, and produce juicy red fruits containing thousands of tiny seeds that are eaten by a variety of frugivorous birds, bats, and monkeys. Although most individuals produce some flowers and fruit year-round, peak flowering occurs in the late dry season (April–May), and peak fruit availability occurs early in the wet season (May–June). Bats and parakeets are the major seed dispersers of M. calabura at our study site, and they concentrate their attention on this species at its fruit peak when few alternate fruits are available. Germinable M. calabura seeds accumulate in the forest soil in relatively high density in areas of high frugivore activity. M. calabura can quickly invade large disturbed areas with a high density of seedlings. Adult densities decline from thousands of individuals/ha to a few individuals/ha in a relatively few years. Clumps of M. calabura trees are replaced by later successional species in < 30 yr.     

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN ORNITHOLOGICAL SOCIETY,HELD AT CAPE TOWN ON 17 May 1969

Earle, R.A. &; Oatley, T.B. 1983. Populations, ecology and breeding of the Orange Thrush at two sites in eastern South Africa. Ostrich 54:205-212.

The two populations of the Orange Thrush Turdus gurneyi studied represented two races, the nominate gurneyi in Natal and disruptans in Transvaal. In the Transvaal there was a large influx of individuals during the winter but numbers stayed constant during the breeding season with one pair/ha. Natal birds were more sedentary. Food seemed to be a major factor in regulating the winter population size of both the Orange Thrush and the Olive Thrush T. olivaceus in the Transvaal forest as the number of earthworms showed a peak just before the bird numbers peaked. In Natal the Orange Thrush showed a higher degree of specialization in diet than the Olive Thrush which his a mixed diet. Clutches consisted of two eggs and incubation lasted IS days. Chicks were brooded frequently, virtually to the time of fledging, thus protecting them from the cool, wet conditions of the forest. The nestling period was 15–18 days. The Orange Thrush preferred areas in the forest where little vegetation occurred at 1,0-1,5 m and where a good layer of leaf litter was present.     

Population density, sex ratio, body size and fluctuating asymmetry of Ceroglossus chilensis (Carabidae) in the fragmented Maulino forest and surrounding pine plantations

Habitat fragmentation results in new environmental conditions that may stress resident populations. Such stress may be reflected in demographical or morphological changes in the individuals inhabiting those landscapes. This study evaluates the effects of fragmentation of the Maulino forest on population density, sex ratio, body size, and fluctuating asymmetry (FA) of the endemic carabid Ceroglossus chilensis. Individuals of C. chilensis were collected during 2006 in five locations at Los Queules National Reserve (continuous forest), in five forest fragments and in five areas of surrounding pine plantations (matrix). In each location, once a season, 40 pitfall traps (20 in the centre, 20 in the edge), were opened for 72 h. Population density of C. chilensis was higher in the small fragments than in the pine matrix, with intermediate densities in the continuous forest; sex ratio did not differ significantly from 1:1 in the three habitats. Individuals from the centre of fragments were smaller than those from the centre of continuous forest, and FA did not vary significantly among habitats. These results suggest that small forest fragments maintain dense populations of C. chilensis and therefore they must be considered in conservation strategies. Although the decrease of the body size suggests that small remnants should be connected by managing the structure of the surrounding matrix, facilitating the dispersion of this carabid across the landscape and avoiding possible antagonistic interactions inside small fragments.     

Phytophagous insect-woody sprout interactions in tropical eucalypt forest. II. Insect community structure

Abstract Sucking insects constituted 79% of all phytophagous insects collected from woody sprouts in the ground layer of a tropical eucalypt forest. Mobile insect groups such as non-psyllid Hemiptera and Orthoptera were relatively frequent in this environment compared to temperate, Eucalyptus-dominated vegetation. The high fire frequency of the tropical eucalypt forest may favour mobile insect groups. The capture of sucking insects and caterpillars peaked in dry season samples. Other patterns of abundance of phytophagous insect groups showed little consistency in their seasonal trends between host species or between vegetation types within host species. Disparities between chewing insect abundance in daytime samples and the damage chewing insects cause, may result from disproportionate consumption by large, mainly nocturnal insects, such as members of the Orthoptera. In this study, 21% of insect species were specialists on single plant species. This study suggested that insect abundance reflected the growth patterns of woody sprouts after regular burning, rather than that plant growth and development were tuned to the pressures of insect herbivory.     

Seasonal changes in the canopy arthropod fauna in Rinorea beniensis in Budongo Forest,Uganda

Arthropods were collected by insecticidal tree fogging on the understorey tree species Rinorea beniensis Engler (Violaceae) in Budongo Forest, a seasonal rain forest in Uganda. Eight trees were fogged in adjacent plots of primary, selectively logged and swamp forest during the wet season and again in the dry season. In all forest types, Psocoptera, parasitoid Hymenoptera, and especially Formicidae and Auchenorrhyncha were more abundant during the dry season, while Ensifera, Heteroptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Coleoptera were more abundant during the wet season. Seasonal change in arthropod composition was very low in the swamp forest located near a stream, where permanent water supply is crucial for the development of the distinct swamp vegetation, with comparatively constant microclimatic conditions all over the year. Seasonal change increased in the primary forest, and shows most significant changes of athropod abundance between dry and wet season in the selectively logged forest which also had the highest heterogeneity in forest structures. Especially small and soft bodied arthropods probably accumulate along a humidity gradient in the dense canopies of Rinorea during the dry season, when the forest floor outside the swamp forest is dry. This effect, which is also strongest in the selectively logged forest, leads to a much higher density of canopy dwelling arthropods during the dry season.     

Potential effects of prescribed savannah burning on the diet selection of forest buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus) in Lopé National Park,Gabon

Seasonality and management are factors that may affect the diet selection of the forest buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus). Fire is considered a major driving force in savannah systems and prescribed burning is a commonly applied conservation tool in protected areas such as Lopé National Park, Gabon. Prescribed annual fires contribute to the maintenance of open areas and provide high‐quality forage for forest buffalo, a major herbivore in the park. We used microhistological faecal analysis to determine the diet selection of forest buffalo and measured the extent of variation between a dry season, preburn and a wet season, postburn sampling period. The buffalo diet comprised mainly of monocotyledons, primarily grasses (Poaceae) and sedges (Cyperaceae). Intake of open‐area‐associated plant species was higher in the wet season, postburn treatment sampling period (97%) than the dry season, preburn sampling period (87%), which corresponded conversely to a reduction in forest‐associated Marantaceae plants (10% versus 1%). High proportions of grasses and sedges in the diet signify the importance of open areas for forest buffalo. Controlled burning as tool for maintenance of open areas may play a key role in the meta‐population management of the forest buffalo.     

Population densities of Sulawesi crested black macaques (Macaca nigra) on Bacan and Sulawesi,Indonesia: Effects of habitat disturbance and hunting

Population surveys of Sulawesi crested black macaques (Macaca nigra) were conducted on the Indonesian islands of Sulawesi and Bacan in 1992–1994 to assess the status of natural populations and determine habitat and anthropogenic factors affecting their population densities. We surveyed five sites for primates, including undisturbed and disturbed habitats. Data were collected on habitat structure and composition at two undisturbed and one disturbed forest site in which the primates were surveyed. The highest density of macaques was found in primary forest at Gunung Sibela Nature Reserve on Bacan (170.3 individuals/km²). Population density in logged forest on Bacan was high but significantly less than primary forest (133.4 individuals/km²). The high density of crested black macaques in primary forest on Bacan is best explained by the high carrying capacity found in primary forest. The lower food quantity and quality of food resources found in logged forest correlated with lower primate densities compared to primary forest. However, the large population of macaques in logged forest demonstrates the conservation value of such forest. Densities on Sulawesi at Tangkoko-Batuangas-DuaSudara Nature Reserve (TBDS) showed a continuing decline since earlier surveys. Primate densities were highest near the protected center of Tangkoko Reserve (66.7 individuals/km²). The peripheral areas of Batuangas and DuaSudara, even though adjacent and continuous, showed lower population densities of 46.4 and 23.5 individuals/km², respectively. The best explanation for the continued decline of Macaca nigra populations at TBDS is hunting. Unless conservation measures are implemented immediately, M. nigra on Sulawesi risks extinction in the near future. Am. J. Primatol. 44:89–106, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Mating success of the endemic Des Murs’ Wiretail (Sylviorthorhynchus desmursii,Furnariidae) in fragmented Chilean rainforests

Abstract: We studied the effects of fragment size, vegetation structure and presence of habitat corridors on the reproductive success of the Des Murs’ Wiretail (Sylviorthorhynchus desmursii Des Murs, Furnariidae), a small (10 g) understorey bird, endemic to South American forests. In a rural landscape of Chiloé Island, southern Chile (42°S; 70°W), we determined the mating and nesting success of wiretails in 28 territories distributed in seven small (1–20 ha) and two large (>300 ha) forest fragments during the 1997–1998 breeding season. Wiretails inhabited dense bamboo thickets in the understorey of forest patches, dense shrublands covering old fields, and dense early successional forest vegetation. Wiretails avoided open pastures. Reproductive success depended solely on the probability of finding mates, and the main factor affecting mating success was the presence of corridors. Mated individuals occupied 72% of the territories in forest patches <20 ha connected by corridors, 73% of the territories in large (>300 ha) fragments, but only 20% of territories in isolated fragments surrounded by pastures. Because of the rapid expansion of pastures in southern Chile, the conservation of wiretails and other understorey birds will depend on the maintenance of travel corridors with dense understorey vegetation between forest fragments.     

Home range and birth seasonality of Saguinus nigricollis graellsi in Ecuadorian Amazonia

A field study ofSaguinus nigricollis graellsi in the Cuyabeno Faunal Production Reserve, Ecuadorian Amazonia, established the characteristics of the home range and some reproductive aspects of the species. Field data were collected in two climatic seasons: dry, from December 1989 through March 1990, and rainy, from May through August 1990. Eight groups visited and/or lived in the study area during the dry season and ten during the rainy season. Group sizes ranged from two to nine individuals. Population density was estimated at 22–33 individuals per square km. The central group, which was followed intensively, had a home range which included both flooded and non-flooded forests. Terra firme forest was most used by the species. The home range of this group was reduced from 56.2 hectares (ha) in the dry season to 41.7 ha in the rainy season, probably as a result of a differential distribution of food plants between seasons. The presence of dense undergrowth where monkeys could hide to avoid predation and or a high concentration of food plants seem related to the preferential use of certain areas in the home range. The home ranges of neighboring groups overlapped considerably and peaceful temporary large groups were frequently observed. A generalized birth peak occurred in January 1990, dry season. In June 1990, rainy season, 40% of the groups exhibited a second birth peak. This reproductive bimodality of S. nigricollis graellsi indicates a high productivity of the forests at the Cuyabeno site. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Daily activity of captive giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) at the wolong reserve

Daytime activity patterns of captive giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) (n = 21) were observed for 2 week periods during October 1991 and January, April, and July 1992. A daytime bimodal activity pattern was seen with increased activity coinciding with feeding times at 1000 and 1600 h. The animals spent an average of 40 ± 10% of their time sleeping, 21 ± 10% resting, 25 ± 11% eating, 13 ± 9% walking, and 1 ± 3% interacting with other giant pandas. Adult females were less active than males or juveniles. During July, giant pandas were less active during the daytime than during other seasons of the year. There was no difference in activity patterns between pregnant and non-pregnant females. Two infants had similar activity patterns to the adults by the time they were 6 months old. Comparison with wild giant pandas (n = 5) at the Wolong Nature Reserve revealed similar bimodal activity cycles, although the time of peak activity differed and foraging/feeding time was greater for wild pandas than for captive animals. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Distribution of small rodents and shrews in a lowland rain forest zone of Nigeria, with observations on their reproductive biology

This paper describes the habitat preferences of small rodents and shrews from April 1984 to March 1985 in four types of vegetation in a lowland rain forest zone of Nigeria. The vegetation types were high forest, scrub, farmlands and teak plantations in Ogba Forest Reserve, Nigeria. A collection of 359 small mammals, consisting of six species of small rodents and four species of shrews, was made in the study area. The small rodents and their percentage composition were Mus musculoides (26.2%), Praomys tullbergi (16.2%), Mastomys natalensis (7.0%), Lophuromys sikapusi (4.5%), Lemniscomys striatus (2.5%), and Arvicanthis niloticus (1.1%). The shrews were Crocidura nigeriae (19.5%), C. crossei (12.3%), C.grandiceps (7.8%) and C. ftavescens manni (3.1%). The vegetational distribution of the small rodents and shrews is discussed. In the high forest, seven species of small mammals were caught; these were Crocidura nigeriae, C. crossei, C.grandiceps, C.flavescens manni, Mus musculoides, Praomys tullbergi and Lophuromys sikapusi. Mus musculoides, Crocidura nigeriae and Praomys tullbergi were more abundant in the high forest. All the species of small mammals recorded in the study area, except Arvicanthis niloticus, were found in the scrub. In the farmlands, all ten species of small mammals were trapped. Mus musculoides was the commonest species in the farmlands. Three species of shrews, Crocidura crossei, C. grandiceps and C.flavescens manni, and also two species of small rodents, Mus musculoides and Mastomys natalensis were caught in the teak plantation. The reproductive data for Mus musculoides, Crocidura nigeriae and Praomys tullbergi show that breeding in these species occurs throughout most months of the year. Fecundity appears to be maximal in the wet season in Mus musculoides and Crocidura nigeriae and in the dry season in the case of Praomys tullbergi.