The Ornithodoros (Alectorobius) capensis group (Acarina: Ixodoidea: Argasidae) of the palearctic and oriental regions. O. (A.) coniceps identity, bird and mammal hosts, virus infections, and distribution in Europe, Africa, and Asia.

Ornithodoros (Alectorobius) coniceps (Canestrini 1890), which was briefly described from adult specimens from St. Mark's Cathedral, Venice, Italy, has been a confusing taxon. We redescribe and illustrate the adult and immature stages from St. Mark's Cathedral (topotypes) and elsewhere, list criteria to distinguish this species from others in the O. (A.) capensis complex, and provide data for 36 collections, chiefly from nest sites of wild and domestic pigeons in humid, rocky situations, and from a nest of the pallid swift, in Italy, France, Egypt, Kenya, Israel, Jordan, Afghanistan, Ukrainia, and Turkmenia. Other collections of small-sized adults and nymphs, lacking larvae, from pigeon, swallow, and swift nest in Nepal, India, and Sri Lanka, are tentatively assigned to this taxon. This is the only member of the O. (A.) capensis group not associated with marine or wading birds. Humans bitten by O. (A.) coniceps in buildings or caves may suffer from pain, edema, chills, and fever. BAku virus (Reoviridae) has been isolated from this tick in Uzbekistan, but most reports of other viruses and infectious agents are clouded by probable misidentification of O. (A.) maritimus as O. (A. coniceps. Published data on the life cycle and dynamics are reviewed briefly. Previously, this tick has not been reported from the Ethiopian Faunal Region (Kenya).     

Ornithodoros (Alectorobius) maritimus (Ixodoidea, Argasidae) a new species in Italy and observations on the coniceps-capensis group

The soft tick of the coniceps-capensis group, Ornithodoros (Alectorobius) maritimus Vermeil & Marguet, 1967, is reported for the first time in Italy. Besides the systematic position and the distribution of the species, as well as observations on bird hosts, the biology and pathogenic role of the group species are discussed.     

Effect of temperature and relative humidity on the life cycle of Ornithodoros (Pavlovskyella) erraticus (Ixodoidea: Argasidae)

The effect of different temperatures (18, 22, 28, and 32.5 C, at constant 75% RH) and relative humidities (0, 15, 42, 60, 75, 84, and 92%, at constant 28 C) on the duration of the life cycle of Ornithodoros (Pavlovskyella) erraticus is studied in the laboratory. The egg incubation period is longer at 22 C than at the other temperatures tested; the percentage of hatched eggs was markedly increased at 28 C in comparison with other temperatures (T's) and relative humidities (RH's) tested. At constant 28 C, most larvae (86.2%) are ready to feed within 7.2 days posthatching; they feed for 5-52 min and molt to N1 in 7.8 days postfeeding. Five nymphal instars are recorded. Unfed N1-N5 survived for a longer period at 18 C than at other temperatures, whereas the effect of RH's was insignificant. After feeding, nymphal premolting periods differ from one instar to another and from one T or RH to another. At 28 C, the males emerge from N3, N4, and N5 in 9-15 days postfeeding, while females emerge only from N4 and N5 in 10-16 days. The overall sex ratio (3 male:5 female) is not affected by different T's and RH's. The female and male life spans were longer (means 720 and 500 days, respectively) at 22 C than at other T's and RH's. This study shows that the duration of the life cycle of O. erraticus decreases with rising T and increases with an increase in RH. However, the 28 C and 75% RH seem to be the optimum conditions for this species.     

Description of a new species of bat-associated argasid tick (Acari: Argasidae) from Brazil

A new species of argasid tick (Acari: Argasidae) is described from immature and adult specimens collected from several localities in Brazil. A complete morphological account is provided for all postembryonic life stages, i.e., larva, nymph, female, and male. Ornithodoros cavernicolous n. sp. is the 113(th) in the genus. Morphologically, the new species shares common features, e.g., presence of well-developed cheeks and legs with micromammillate cuticle, with other bat-associated argasid ticks included in the subgenus Alectorobius. In particular, the new species is morphologically related to Ornithodoros azteci Matheson, with which it forms a species group. Phylogenetic analysis based on the 16S rRNA gene sequences supports the placement of the new species within a large clade that includes other New World bat-associated argasids. However, the new species seems to represent an independent lineage within the genus Ornithodoros.     

Liver and plasma retinol (vitamin A) in wild, and liver retinol in captive penguins (Spheniscidae)

In rockhopper penguins ( Eudyptes crestatus ), liver concentrations of retinol (vitamin A) were significantly higher in post-moult than in pre-moult birds. In Magellanic penguins ( Spheniscus magelianicus ), plasma concentrations of retinol were significantly higher in post-moult than in pre-moult birds; liver retinol concentrations were also higher, but not significantly so.
The pre- and post-moult Magellanics had higher liver and lower plasma retinol concentrations than the pre- and post-moult rockhoppers.
Captive blackfooted (jackass) ( Spheniscus demersus ), king ( Aptenodytes patagonica ) and Humboldt ( Spheniscus humboldti ) penguins had liver vitamin A stores significantly lower than those of the free-living rockhopper, Magellanic, gentoo ( Pygoscelis papua ), emperor ( Aptenodytes forsteri ), chinstraps ( Pygoscelis antarctica ) and Adélie ( Pygoscelis adeliae ) penguins.     

Blood feeding of Ornithodoros turicata larvae using an artificial membrane system

An artificial membrane system was adapted to feed Ornithodoros turicata (Ixodida: Argasidae) larvae from a laboratory colony using defibrinated swine blood. Aspects related to larval feeding and moulting to the first nymphal instar were evaluated. A total of 55.6% of all larvae exposed to the artificial membrane in two experimental groups fed to repletion and 98.0% of all fed larvae moulted. Mortality rates of first instar nymphs differed significantly depending on the sorting tools used to handle engorged larvae (χ² = 35.578, P < 0.0001): engorged larvae handled with featherweight forceps showed significantly higher mortality (odds ratio = 4.441) than those handled with a camel‐hair brush. Differences in the physical properties of the forceps and camel‐hair brush may affect the viability of fragile soft tick larvae even when care and the same technique are used to sort them during experimental manipulations. The current results represent those of the first study to quantify successful feeding to repletion, moulting and post‐moulting mortality rates in O. turicata larvae using an artificial membrane feeding system. Applications of the artificial membrane feeding system to fill gaps in current knowledge of soft tick biology and the study of soft tick–pathogen interactions are discussed.     

洪氏环企鹅骨骼的解剖学特点

采用解剖学方法对1只雄性洪氏环企鹅(Spheniscus,humboldti)骨骼系统进行了详细的观察、描述.结果表明:企鹅骨骼结实、沉重不充气;喙长,前端略下弯,颞部呈深凹陷状;肩胛骨及胸骨龙骨突发达;胸椎不愈合;前肢骨骼扁平,特化为鳍状,翼内关节活动性较小,第一掌骨及拇指消失;髌骨发达,跗跖骨短而宽扁.这些特征主要体现了洪氏环企鹅对海中潜水、游泳、取食以及陆地直立的适应.     

Redescription of the larva,and description of the nymphal and adult stages of Ornithodoros peruvianus Kohls,Clifford & Jones, 1969 (Acari: Argasidae)

The soft tick Ornithodoros peruvianus Kohls, Clifford & Jones, 1969 was described as a parasite of bats in Peru upon the examination of engorged larvae only. Recently, larvae of this tick species were reported on bats from northern Chile. However, the adult and nymphal stages of O. peruvianus have remained undescribed. This study aimed to redescribe the larva of O. peruvianus based on unfed specimens, and to describe nymphs, the male and the female of this species. Ticks were collected on the walls inside three caves in northern Chile. Two females laid eggs in the laboratory. Part of the unfed larvae was separated for morphological and morphometrical analyses, and the remaining specimens were fed upon laboratory mice in order to obtain subsequent nymphal and adult stages. The first nymphal stage (N1) moulted either to male or to a second nymphal stage (N2) without feeding. Obtained N2 moulted either to male or female after one meal. PCR amplification of tick mitochondrial 16S rRNA of specimens from the three caves revealed almost identical sequences. The unfed larva of O. peruvianus has an elongated idiosoma, and fringed setae cover the ventral surfaces of coxae, palps and tarsi. Nymph 1 has a thin integument covered by incipient mammillae and barely noticeable dorsal disks; it lacks cheeks and possesses few short setae on the basis capitulum. Nymph 2 has a pair of small cheeks and resembles adult stages in its tegumentary traits and capitulum. Adult stages exhibit developed cheeks (larger in females) without the capacity to completely cover the capitulum. Very small and low mammillae cover the surface of the dorsal idiosoma in adults. As this feature also occurs in other bat-associated soft ticks, regardless of their phylogenetic relatedness, small mammillae in bat soft ticks are suggestive of convergent evolution.

     

Observations on the subgenus Argas (Ixodoidea: Argasidae: Argas). 19. Description of the larva of the Palearctic cormorant parasite A. (A.) macrostigmatus

Larvae of 19 of the 21 species of the Argas subgenus Argas are already described. One of the two exceptions is A. (A.) macrostigmatus; we describe the larva of this species from wet nests of the crested cormorant, Phalacrocorax aristotelis, from Corsica, France. As in the adult and nymphal stages, this larva has an uncovered Haller's organ, a character shared in Palearctic members of this large genus only with A. (A.) polonicus, a Central European parasite of rock pigeons. Available larval samples of both species are indistinguishable. However, adult and nymphal A. (A.) macrostigmatus are unique for their exceptionally large spiracular plates. These are the only Argas (Argas) species which differ distinctly as adults and nymphs but hardly or not at all as larvae. Argas (A.) macrostigmatus was previously known only from a nest of the crested cormorant in the Black Sea. Ukrainian SSR.     

Odor-based recognition of familiar and related conspecifics: a first test conducted on captive Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti)

Studies of kin recognition in birds have largely focused on parent-offspring recognition using auditory or visual discrimination. Recent studies indicate that birds use odors during social and familial interactions and possibly for mate choice, suggesting olfactory cues may mediate kin recognition as well. Here, we show that Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti), a natally philopatric species with lifetime monogamy, discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar non-kin odors (using prior association) and between unfamiliar kin and non-kin odors (using phenotype matching). Penguins preferred familiar non-kin odors, which may be associated with the recognition of nest mates and colony mates and with locating burrows at night after foraging. In tests of kin recognition, penguins preferred unfamiliar non-kin odors. Penguins may have perceived non-kin odors as novel because they did not match the birds' recognition templates. Phenotype matching is likely the primary mechanism for kin recognition within the colony to avoid inbreeding. To our knowledge this is the first study to provide evidence of odor-based kin discrimination in a bird.     

Description of adults and nymph, and redescription of the larva, of Ornithodoros marinkellei (Acari:Argasidae), with data on its phylogenetic position

The argasid tick Ornithodoros marinkellei Kohls, Clifford, and Jones, 1969 was described 4 decades ago based on larval specimens collected from bats (Pteronotus spp.) in Colombia and Panama. Thereafter, larval O. marinkellei parasitizing bats were reported from Venezuela, Guyana, and Brazil. Herein, we describe the adults and nymph, and redescribe the larva of O. marinkellei based on specimens recently collected in the western Brazilian Amazon region. In contrast to all other known adult argasids, the idiosoma of both males and females of O. marinkellei is covered with sclerotized plaques. The idiosoma of the nymph of O. marinkellei is entirely micromamillated, and differs from the adults by the absence of plaques. The larva of O. marinkellei is morphologically similar to the larvae of the 2 other species belonging to the subgenus Subparmatus , i.e., Ornithodoros viguerasi Cooley and Kohls, 1941 and Ornithodoros mormoops Kohls, Clifford, and Jones, 1969 . Because of the long and narrow dorsal plate, the larva of O. marinkellei is readily distinguished from O. viguerasi and O. mormoops. Comparison of our larvae from Brazil with O. marinkellei paratype specimens from Colombia confirmed their taxonomic identification. However, a few morphological differences, particularly in the size of the gnathosoma, were observed. Further studies are necessary to clarify whether O. marinkellei is a complex of different species, or a single species represented by morphologically polymorphic, and geographically distinct populations. Partial mitochondrial 16S rDNA gene sequences were generated for O. marinkellei specimens from Brazil, and compared with available homologous sequences in GenBank. Phylogenetic analyses revealed O. marinkellei to be distinct from the remaining argasid species available in GenBank, including other bat-associated tick species that are found in sympatry with O. marinkellei in the Neotropical region.     

DNA sexing in Humboldt Penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) from feather samples

Humboldt Penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) show little sexual dimorphism, and although males are usually heavier and larger than females, sexing by direct observation may be difficult, especially in young subjects. In this paper we evaluate the utility of the molecular approach, for sexing impuberal Humboldt Penguins from feathers. Firstly, a PCR test was used employing primers that amplify the homologous region of the CHD-W gene, unique in female, and the CHD-Z gene, occurring in the two sexes. The analysis of the PCR products showed a band of 370 bp in males and two bands of 370 and 380 bp in females. Additionally, to confirm these results, the PCR products were digested with HaeIII and Asp700 for RFLP analysis. Male PCR products showed two bands (310 and 60 bp) after digestion with HaeIII, and a unique band (370 bp) using Asp700, while all fragments obtained from females resolved into three bands using both HaeIII (380, 310 and 60 bp) and Asp700 (370, 270 and 110 bp), confirming the previous PCR sex determination. Results from these two different DNA-based tests were in accordance, in all cases, with sexes checked by preliminary cloacoscopy. Thus, it was found that the PCR method from feather samples alone is sufficient, reliable and without any risks for a rapid sexing in Humboldt Penguin. This non-invasive sexing technique can be useful at any age to verify the sex ratio in field populations and for gender identification in ex situ conservation programs.     

Evolution and adaptations of Galapagos sea-birds

With two endemic genera, 26% endemism at the specific, and 58% endemism at the subspecific level, the Galapagos sea-bird fauna is more highly endemic than that of any other archipelago. Of the four most distinct, hence probably oldest, endemics, three are probably of north Pacific origin and the fourth may be. The next most distinct group is of Humboldt Current origin, and the remainder, which are very little differentiated, are of Pacific or Caribbean origin. Special adaptations to Galapagos conditions include the loss of flight by a cormorant and the evolution of nocturnal habits by a gull, the latter probably as a result of kleptoparasitism or nest-predation by frigatebirds. As a group the Galapagos sea-birds show varied adaptive responses to the relatively ascasonal and highly unpredictable marine environment. Opportunistic and non-annual breeding regimes predominate. Unlike the Galapagos land-birds, the study of Galapagos sea-birds has thrown light not on speciation processes but on the consequences of natural selection acting on breeding ecology and associated behaviour.     

An experimental assessment of the tampan tick Ornithodoros moubata as vector of hepatitis B virus

Wild-caught and colonized tampan ticks, Ornithodoros moubata (Murray), were fed on hepatitis B virus (HBV)-positive blood-means in a series of four experiments. Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) persisted in nymphal and adult ticks for up to 779 days, while the epsmark antigen (HBeAg) persisted in mature nymphs up to 13 days, in adult males up to 11 days and in adult females up to 16 days. HBsAg was transmitted trans-stadially through two moults during the life cycle but transovarial transmission did not occur. The surface antigen was transmitted by two out of fifteen single ticks into 0.4 ml aliquots of HBV-negative blood, although six groups of ticks failed to transmit into 5.5 ml aliquots of blood: this antigen was not transmitted to hamsters. HBsAg was detected in samples of the ticks' coxal and rectal fluid secretions always at the infecting feed and usually at the second feed. HBeAg was only detected in one of two samples of coxal fluid collected at the infecting feed. The results as a whole indicate that no biological multiplication of virus occurs in O.moubata but that mechanical transmission from ticks to man could occur by: (i) contamination of a person when crushing infected ticks; (ii) infection by bite; (iii) contamination with coxal fluid, especially by scratching bites. This is thought to take place among the Kavango tribe in their village huts in north-eastern Namibia where infestations of infected O.moubata occur.     

The isolation of Saumarez Reef virus, a new flavivirus, from bird ticks Ornithodoros capensis and Ixodes eudyptidis in Australia.

Strains of a new flavivirus, for which the name Saumarez Reef Virus is proposed, were isolated from seabird ticks collected from four localities. Two strains were isolated from ticks of the species Ornithodoros capensis Neumann 1901 collected from the nests of Sooty Terns, Sterna fuscata Linnaeus 1766 on coral cays off the east coast of Queensland, Australia. The other three strains were isolated from ticks of the species Ixodes eudyptidis Maskell 1885 taken from two dead Silver Gulls Larus novaehollandiae Stephens 1826 in northern Tasmania. The new virus was compared serologically with 50 other flaviviruses at the Yale Arbovirus Research Unit and was found to be most closely related to Tyuleniy virus.     

Reproductive success and survivorship of the Galapagos Hawk Buteo galapagoensis: potential costs and benefits of cooperative polyandry

The Galapagos Hawk Buteo galapagoensis is one of few species showing cooperative polyandry. As many as four males may mate with one female and share a territory and nest, Such groups, on average, produce more young than monogamous pairs, but on a per male basis (assuming that each male of a group has an equal chance to fertilize each young) polyandrous males produce fewer young per year than monogamous males. Territorial breeding birds show higher yearly survivorship (90%) than non-territorial, non-breeding birds (50% or less). All territorial birds seem to remain on their territories for life, and monogamous pairs actually constitute the remnants of polyandrous groups. Some potential factors producing such an unusual system are discussed. Limited breeding space and high mortality among non-territorial birds seem to work in favour of group breeding in this and other cooperative species. Polyandry may be favoured because of the reduced value of extra females in hawk breeding behaviour. Equal-status males may occur because of the lack of kinship among cooperating males and the high potential genetic cost of being a helper in a long-lived, low fecundity species. Other possible factors favouring group breeding are territory acquisition and the variable nature of the Galapagos climate.     

Larval feeding performance of two Neotropical Ornithodoros ticks (Acari: Argasidae) on reptiles

This paper determines the feeding performance of the larvae of two Neotropical soft tick species namely Ornithodoros rostratus Aragão, 1911 and O. puertoricensis Fox, 1947 on reptiles (Gekkonidae) using rabbits, mice and guinea pigs to provide comparisons with feeding features on mammals. O. puertoricensis produced a larval feeding rate of 63% on reptiles, while that of O. rostratus was only 20%. But the final success (attaching + feeding) was similar, 12.4% for O. puertoricensis and 10.4% for O. rostratus. The feeding time was also very different for both species. In O. puertoricensis, detachment begins at 16th day and lasts until day 27. In O. rostratus detachment begins at 1.5 h and lasts until day 10. These values of feeding on reptiles are different from those obtained on mammals (average 5.6 days for O. puertoricensis and 2.9 for O. rostratus).