Activation of elicitor defensive properties by systemic signal molecules during the interaction between potato and Phytophthora

The elicitor arachidonic acid in combination with jasmonic acid (JA) induced a higher level of defense against the late blight agent in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) tissues than in combination with salicylic acid (SA). On the contrary, the elicitor chitosan displayed a higher inductive effect in combination with SA as compared with JA. The optimal concentrations of tested compounds were selected for designing the compositions activating wound repair, induction of proteinase inhibitors, and resistance to the biotrophic pathogen Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary. It was demonstrated that the compositions of elicitor and systemic signal molecules provided a faster spreading of an inducing effect in the potato tissues.     

Activation of elicitor defensive properties by systemic signal molecules during the interaction between potato and the late blight agent

The elicitor arachidonic acid in combination with jasmonic acid (JA) induced a higher level of defense against the late blight agent in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) tissues than in combination with salicylic acid (SA). On the contrary, the elicitor chitosan displayed a higher inductive effect in combination with SA as compared with JA. The optimal concentrations of tested compounds were selected for designing the compositions activating wound repair, induction of proteinase inhibitors, and resistance to the biotrophic pathogen Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary. It was demonstrated that the compositions of elicitor and systemic signal molecules provided a faster spreading of an inducing effect in the potato tissues.     

Regulation of potato immune responses by laminarin

Laminarin blocks potato immune responses by inhibiting the reaction of oversensitivity, formation of phytoalexins, wound repair, and the activity of proteinase inhibitors. It was found that laminarin exhibits antielicitor activity. Addition of salicylic acid to laminarin enhances its immunosuppressing effect, which becomes systemic.     

Salt stress activation of wound-related genes in tomato plants

Plants respond to various stresses by expressing distinct sets of genes. The effects of multiple stresses on plants and their interactions are not well understood. We have discovered that salt stress causes the accumulation of proteinase inhibitors and the activation of other wound-related genes in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) plants. Salt stress was also found to enhance the plant's response to wounding locally and systemically. The tomato mutant (def-1), which has an impairment in the octadecanoid pathway, displayed a severe reduction in the accumulation of proteinase inhibitors under salt stress, indicating that salt stress-induced accumulation of proteinase inhibitors was jasmonic acid dependent. The analysis of salt stress in another tomato mutant, spr-1, which carries a mutation in a systemin-specific signaling component, and transgenic tomato plants that express an antisense-prosystemin cDNA, showed that prosystemin activity was not required for the salt-induced accumulation of proteinase inhibitors, but was necessary to achieve maximal levels. These results suggest that a prosystemin independent- but jasmonic acid-dependent pathway is utilized for proteinase inhibitor accumulation in response to salt stress.     

Regulation of Potato Immune Responses by Laminarin

Laminarin blocks potato immune responses by inhibiting the reaction of oversensitivity, formation of phytoalexins, wound repair, and the activity of proteinase inhibitors. It was found that laminarin exhibits antielicitor activity. Addition of salicylic acid to laminarin enhances its immunosuppressing effect, which becomes systemic.     

Salicylic acid-independent plant defence pathways

Salicylic acid is an important signalling molecule involved in both locally and systemically induced disease resistance responses. Recent advances in our understanding of plant defence signalling have revealed that plants employ a network of signal transduction pathways, some of which are independent of salicylic acid. Evidence is emerging that jasmonic acid and ethylene play key roles in these salicylic acid-independent pathways. Cross-talk between the salicylic acid-dependent and the salicylic acid-independent pathways provides great regulatory potential for activating multiple resistance mechanisms in varying combinations.     

Role of proteinase inhibitors in potato protection

Mechanical damage or infection of potatoes with Phytophthora infestans caused an accumulation of only serine protease inhibitors in exudates of potato tubers. Among them, proteins prevailed that are structurally similar to those present in healthy tubers: a 22-kDa trypsin inhibitor, a 21-kDa serine protease inhibitor consisting of two polypeptide chains, and a 8-kDa potato chymotrypsin I inhibitor produced de novo. The accumulated proteins inhibited the growth of hyphae and germination of zoospores of P. infestans. Treatment with elicitors, jasmonic and arachidonic acids, intensified the accumulation of these inhibitors in tubers in response to the wound stress, whereas salicylic acid blocked this process. These results suggest that the lipoxygenase metabolism plays a substantial role in signal transduction of the protective system of resting potato tubers.     

Effects of Elicitors on the Accumulation of Proteinase Inhibitors in Injured Potato Tubers

The time course of accumulation and the composition of proteinase-inhibiting proteins in diffusates from potato tubers treated with elicitors such as salicylic, jasmonic, and arachidonic acids were studied. The 40-kDa reserve protein patatin and the chymotrypsin inhibitors, among which proteins of 24.6, 22.0, and 16.0 kDa were prevalent, accumulated in diffusates from potato tubers. Jasmonic and arachidonic acids activated the accumulation of the chymotrypsin inhibitors in tubers in response to the injury stress, whereas salicylic acid inhibited this process. The effects of jasmonic and arachidonic acids increased when their concentrations decreased to 10^–6M. Salicylic acid inhibited this process. The data suggest an important role of the lipoxygenase metabolism in signal transduction of the anti-injury defense system in dormant potato tubers.     

Effect of elicitors on accumulation of protease inhibitors in injured potato tubers

The time course of accumulation and the composition of proteinase-inhibiting proteins in diffusates from potato tubers treated with elicitors such as salicylic, jasmonic, and arachidonic acids were studied. The 40-kDa reserve protein patatin and the chymotrypsin inhibitors, among which proteins of 24.6, 22.0, and 16.0 kDa were prevalent, accumulated in diffusates from potato tubers. Jasmonic and arachidonic acids activated the accumulation of the chymotrypsin inhibitors in tubers in response to the injury stress, whereas salicylic acid inhibited this process. The effects of jasmonic and arachidonic acids increased when their concentrations decreased to 10(-6) M. The data suggest an important role of the lipoxygenase metabolism in signal transduction of the anti-injury defense system in the dormant potato tubers.     

Role of Protease Inhibitors in Potato Protection

Mechanical wounding or infection of potatoes with Phytophthora infestans caused an accumulation of only serine protease inhibitors in exudates of potato tubers. Among them, proteins prevailed that are structurally similar to those present in healthy tubers: a 22-kDa trypsin inhibitor, a 21-kDa serine protease inhibitor consisting of two polypeptide chains, and a 8-kDa potato chymotrypsin I inhibitor produced de novo. The accumulated proteins inhibited the growth of hyphae and germination of zoospores of P. infestans. Treatment with elicitors, jasmonic and arachidonic acids, intensified the accumulation of these inhibitors in tubers in response to the wound stress, whereas salicylic acid blocked this process. These results suggest that lipoxygenase metabolism plays a substantial role in signal transduction of the protective system of resting potato tubers.     

Cross-talk between wound signalling pathways determines local versus systemic gene expression in Arabidopsis thaliana

Plants react to mechanical damage by activating a set of genes, the products of which are thought to serve defensive functions. In solanaceous plants, cell wall-derived oligosaccharides and the plant hormones jasmonic acid and ethylene participate in the signalling network for wound-induced expression of proteinase inhibitors and other defence-related genes, both in the locally damaged and in the systemic non-damaged leaves. Here we show that in Arabidopsis thaliana, these signalling components interact in novel ways to activate distinct responses. In damaged tissues, oligosaccharides induce the expression of a specific set of wound-responsive genes while repressing jasmonic acid-responsive genes that are activated in the systemic tissues. The oligosaccharide-mediated repression of the jasmonic acid-dependent signalling pathway is exerted through the production and perception of ethylene in the locally damaged tissue. This cross-talk between separate wound signalling pathways thus allows the set up of different responses in the damaged and the systemic tissues of plants reacting to injury.     

The inhibition of potato tubers wound reparation

The multiple washing of the wound surface of potato tubers by water adversely affected the protective properties of wound periderm. Immune inhibitor β-1,3-β-1,6 glucan had a property of local effect and inhibited the process of wound healing. The pentasaccharide of xyloglucan caused necrosis of potato tuber tissue and prevented the wound reparation process.     

Occurrence of jasmonic acid in organs of Solanum tuberosum L. and its effect on tuberization

The aims of this study were to demonstrate the endogenous presence of jasmonic acid (JA) in roots, stolons and periderm of new formed tubers, by means of bioassays, ELISA and GC-MS, and to test a microdrop bioassay using the leaflets of potato cuttings cultured in vitro. Our results confirm the existence of JA by bioassays and GC-MS in foliage, stolons, roots and tuber periderm.Abbreviations DW dry weight - GC-MS gas chromatography-mass spectrometry - JA jasmonic acid - MeOH methanol - SD short day     

Octadecanoid Precursors of Jasmonic Acid Activate the Synthesis of Wound-Inducible Proteinase Inhibitors

Jasmonic acid and methyl jasmonate have been shown previously to be powerful inducers of proteinase inhibitors in tomato, tobacco, and alfalfa leaves. We show here that when proposed octadecanoid precursors of jasmonic acid, i.e., linolenic acid, 13(S)-hydroperoxylinolenic acid, and phytodienoic acid, were applied to the surfaces of tomato leaves, these compounds also served as powerful inducers of proteinase inhibitor I and II synthesis, a simulation of a wound response. By contrast, compounds closely related to the precursors but which are not intermediates in the jasmonic acid biosynthetic pathway did not induce proteinase inhibitor synthesis. These results suggest that the octadecanoid intermediates may participate in a lipid-based signaling system that activates proteinase inhibitor synthesis in response to insect and pathogen attack.     

Alkyl ferulates in wound healing potato tubers

Seven ferulic acid esters of 1-alkanols ranging in carbon length from C16 to C28 were synthesized and an HPLC protocol for their separation developed. Extracts prepared from wound healing potato (Solanum tuberosum) tubers and analysed by HPLC indicated that alkyl ferulate esters begin to accumulate 3-7 days after wound treatment. Of the nine esters identified by EIMS, (including two esters of odd chain length alkanols) hexadecyl and octadecyl ferulates were predominant. Alkyl ferulate esters were restricted to the wound periderm.     

Involvement of polyamine oxidase in wound healing

Hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) is involved in plant defense responses that follow mechanical damage, such as those that occur during herbivore or insect attacks, as well as pathogen attack. H(2)O(2) accumulation is induced during wound healing processes as well as by treatment with the wound signal jasmonic acid. Plant polyamine oxidases (PAOs) are H(2)O(2) producing enzymes supposedly involved in cell wall differentiation processes and defense responses. Maize (Zea mays) PAO (ZmPAO) is a developmentally regulated flavoprotein abundant in primary and secondary cell walls of several tissues. In this study, we investigated the effect of wounding on ZmPAO gene expression in the outer tissues of the maize mesocotyl and provide evidence that ZmPAO enzyme activity, protein, and mRNA levels increased in response to wounding as well as jasmonic acid treatment. Histochemically detected ZmPAO activity especially intensified in the epidermis and in the wound periderm, suggesting a tissue-specific involvement of ZmPAO in wound healing. The role played by ZmPAO-derived H(2)O(2) production in peroxidase-mediated wall stiffening events was further investigated by exploiting the in vivo use of N-prenylagmatine (G3), a selective and powerful ZmPAO inhibitor, representing a reliable diagnostic tool in discriminating ZmPAO-mediated H(2)O(2) production from that generated by peroxidase, oxalate oxidase, or by NADPH oxidase activity. Here, we demonstrate that G3 inhibits wound-induced H(2)O(2) production and strongly reduces lignin and suberin polyphenolic domain deposition along the wound, while it is ineffective in inhibiting the deposition of suberin aliphatic domain. Moreover, ZmPAO ectopic expression in the cell wall of transgenic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants strongly enhanced lignosuberization along the wound periderm, providing evidence for a causal relationship between PAO and peroxidase-mediated events during wound healing.     

Potato cysteine proteinase inhibitor gene family: molecular cloning,characterisation and immunocytochemical localisation studies

Potato cysteine proteinase inhibitors (PCPIs) represent a distinct group of proteins as they show no homology to any other known cysteine proteinase inhibitor superfamilies, but they all belong to the Kunitz-type soybean trypsin inhibitor family. cDNA clones for five PCPIs have been isolated and sequenced. Amino acid substitutions occurring in the limited regions forming loops on the surface of these proteins suggest a further classification of PCPIs into three subgroups. Accumulation of PCPI was observed in vacuoles of stems after treatment with jasmonic acid (JA) using immunocytochemical localisation, implying that these inhibitors are part of a potato defence mechanism against insects and pathogens. Genomic DNA analysis show that PCPIs form a multigene family and suggest that their genes do not possess any introns.