Molecular phylogeny of Eurasian badgers (Meles) around the distribution boundaries,revealed by analyses of mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosomal genes

Based on previous molecular and morphological analyses, Eurasian badgers are currently classified into Meles meles distributed in Europe, M. canescens in the Caucasus and Middle East, M. leucurus in continental Asia and M. anakuma in Japan. The precise locations of their distribution boundaries are still unclear. Therefore, in the present study, we clarified the phylogenetic relationships in the genus Meles around its distribution boundaries, based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and Y-chromosomal genes. From 71 badgers examined, 29 mtDNA haplotypes were identified, including new 26 types. Multiple haplotypes of SRY and CAN-SINEs were identified from 23 males, including two new haplotypes of SRY. The mtDNA phylogeny showed that the Ural Mountains were not a current distribution boundary between M. meles and M. leucurus. In addition, our results supported the hypothesis that the Bosphorus Strait is a geographical barrier between M. meles and M. canescens. The badgers from Bulgaria north of the Bosphorus Strait shared haplotypes with M. meles. On the other hand, badgers from Far Eastern Russia distributed in the eastern peripheral region of the Asian Continent had haplotypes of M. leucurus. The badgers from Norway and Finland shared haplotypes with M. meles.     

重引入狗獾秋冬季行为的初步研究

2010年11月至2011年2月在上海奉贤申亚生态园内,对从山东重引入的狗獾(Meles meles)在围栏内进行了秋冬季行为的初步研究。结果表明,重引入狗獾在冬季活动时间低,取食食物以肉类饲料为主,平均2～4 d出洞活动一次,受温度影响大。研究表明,重引入狗獾能适应人工饲养并顺利越冬。     

The earliest European badger (Meles meles), from the Late Villafranchian site of Fuente Nueva 3 (Orce, Granada, SE Iberian Peninsula)

Paleontological and molecular data suggest that the divergence of the European and Asian badgers (Meles meles and Meles leucurus, respectively) from their ancestor Meles thorali might have taken place in the Middle to Late Villafranchian boundary (ca. 1.8 Ma). However, the available record of Late Villafrachian European badgers is scanty and poorly known, and this hypothesis needs more paleontological data in order to be tested. The badger hemimandible from the Iberian locality of Fuente Nueva 3, a locality placed in the beginning of the Late Villafranchian, supports the idea of an early divergence between European and Asian badgers.     

Phylogenetic relationships and genetic diversity of badgers from the Korean Peninsula: Implications for the taxonomic status of the Korean badger

Accurate taxonomic classification of wildlife species is crucial for guiding biological research and for developing effective management and conservation programs. The taxonomic status of Eurasian badgers from South Korea remains poorly resolved. Here we assessed the phylogenetic relationships and genetic variation of Eurasia badgers using partial mitochondrial fragments to elucidate the evolutionary history and taxonomic status of badgers from the Korean Peninsula. Forty-eight unique haplotypes from 125 individuals were observed. Phylogenetic reconstructions and reduced median networks indicate that Eurasian badgers consisted of four geographic clades (Japan, Eastern Eurasia, Western Eurasia, and Caucasus) with a relatively weak split observed within Eastern Eurasia. Estimated divergence time between the Japanese and Eastern Eurasian clades, including the Korean population, was 467,100 years (69,200–1,085,500 years). The results of this study support the hypothesis that the Japanese badger migrated from the Eurasian continent over the Korea-Japan land bridge and that the Korean Peninsula was an important refugia during the Pleistocene. Our study confirmed that the South Korean badger, Meles meles, belongs to the Eastern Eurasian clade. Based on these results and those of previous studies, we recommend that the scientific name of the Korean badger be changed from M. meles to Meles leucurus (Asian badger).     

The diet of the badger Meles meles in the Republic of Ireland

The diet of the Eurasian badger (Meles meles) in the Republic of Ireland was studied by examination of the stomach contents of 686 badgers, collected between March 2005 and September 2006. It was found that the relative importance of different food types, as indicated by their frequency of occurrence and ingested bulk in the diet, fluctuated seasonally. Tipulid larvae (Cl. Insecta, Ord. Tipulidae) dominated the diet in spring; Anura (Cl. Amphibia) and Aculeata (Ord. Hymenoptera) during the summer; and Noctuid larvae (Cl. Insecta, Ord. Noctuidae) in autumn and winter. Thus this type of foraging behaviour supports the contention that badgers are generalist foragers with seasonal food preferences. This feeding behaviour is more similar to that of badgers in Italy and Spain than to badgers in England.     

Nuclear and mitochondrial phylogenies provide evidence for four species of Eurasian badgers (Carnivora)

Del Cerro, I., Marmi, J., Ferrando, A., Chashchin, P., Taberlet, P. & Bosch, M. (2010). Nuclear and mitochondrial phylogenies provide evidence for four species of Eurasian badgers (Carnivora). —Zoologica Scripta, 39, 415–425. The Eurasian badgers (Meles spp.) have a fairly widespread distribution in the Palearctic region and their great morphological variability throughout the vast geographic area has nourished an intense debate about the classification of this taxon. Therefore, the aim of this study was to clarify controversies in Eurasian badger taxonomy by means of a new molecular phylogeny. One‐hundred and seventeen individuals of Eurasian badgers from 18 countries throughout Eurasia were sequenced for up to 3257 bp of nuclear DNA over six loci (ACTC, BGN, CFTR, CHRNA1, TS and TTR) and 512 bp of the mitochondrial DNA control region. Statistical and phylogenetic analyses for combined nDNA, mtDNA and the total‐evidence data clearly showed a strong genetic differentiation in four well‐supported clades, three of which corresponded to allopatric badger species previously defined according to morphological data: Meles meles Linnaeus, 1758 in Europe; Meles leucurus Hodgson, 1847 in the continental part of Asia, except the south‐west part; and M. anakuma Temminck, 1844 in Japan. Up to now, the fourth clade, made up of individuals from south‐west Asia, had been considered as a subspecies. Supported by several pieces of morphological evidence, the new phylogeny revealed that it is necessary to revise the current taxonomic classification of Meles spp. and suggested that the badgers from south‐west Asia should be recognised as a separate species, being renamed M. canescens Blanford, 1875.     

Ecomorphology of the Early Pleistocene Badger Meles dimitrius from Greece

Τhe functional morphology of the skull of the fossil badger Meles dimitrius from the Early Pleistocene of Greece is studied by means of comparative myological and osteological analyses with the extant representatives of the genus Meles from Europe and Asia. The myological analysis of the masticatory system allowed the reconstruction of a ‘muscle map’ of the significant muscles for feeding and prey capture for the extant Meles meles and, by analogy, for the extinct Meles dimitrius. The quantitative osteological analysis computed several functional cranial, mandibular, and dental measurements and indices, as well as endocranial volume, bite force, and body mass, in order to identify characters that could be attributed to different ecomorphs. Two main ecomorphological groups were recognized within extant Meles. One includes the mainland forms (M. meles, M. leucurus) and the other the insular populations (M. canescens from Crete and M. anakuma from Japan). Apart from its size, Meles dimitrius appears closer to the insular group, which is characterized by a relatively more developed masticatory system, a well-developed temporalis muscle, increased bite forces, increased endocranial volume and possibly a better adaptation to processing meat. The similarity of M. dimitrius with the insular group could be related to the retention of a primitive active predatory and meat-consuming behavior. Alternatively, M. dimitrius could have represented a relatively isolated population having evolved features convergently found in the insular extant badgers.

     

京杭运河堤坝区域狗獾的栖息地特征

2006年10-11月和2007年10-11月,在京杭运河邵伯-高邮段的西侧堤坝上,采用样方法测定了狗獾3个不同类型栖息地的特征变量和利用强度,结果表明:狗獾主要生活在郁闭度较高的森林中,对泡桐、泡桐-杨树次生林的利用强度显著的高于杨树人工林(P<0.05);多元线性逐步回归分析表明:洞口数主要受灌木密度、大树密度、草本植物盖度、土壤含水率和人为干扰强度的影响(P=0.002),而粪堆数主要受灌木密度、大树密度和人为干扰强度的影响(P=0.012)。整体来看,影响狗獾栖息地选择的因素主要是郁闭度、人为干扰水平有关的因子。     

Badgers prefer cattle pasture but avoid cattle: implications for bovine tuberculosis control

Effective management of infectious disease relies upon understanding mechanisms of pathogen transmission. In particular, while models of disease dynamics usually assume transmission through direct contact, transmission through environmental contamination can cause different dynamics. We used Global Positioning System (GPS) collars and proximity‐sensing contact‐collars to explore opportunities for transmission of Mycobacterium bovis [causal agent of bovine tuberculosis] between cattle and badgers (Meles meles). Cattle pasture was badgers’ most preferred habitat. Nevertheless, although collared cattle spent 2914 collar‐nights in the home ranges of contact‐collared badgers, and 5380 collar‐nights in the home ranges of GPS‐collared badgers, we detected no direct contacts between the two species. Simultaneous GPS‐tracking revealed that badgers preferred land > 50 m from cattle. Very infrequent direct contact indicates that badger‐to‐cattle and cattle‐to‐badger M. bovis transmission may typically occur through contamination of the two species’ shared environment. This information should help to inform tuberculosis control by guiding both modelling and farm management.     

Food Aversion Plus Odor Cue Protects Crop From Wild Mammals

Abstract: Wild mammals cause foraging damage to crops worldwide and nonlethal methods are required for controlling such damage. Many wildlife management situations demand protection of untreated foods. We tested learned food aversion plus an odor cue as a paradigm for protecting untreated model crop items from European badgers (Meles meles). Following conditioning with a combination of ziram and clove oil, badgers avoided untreated maize cobs in presence of a clove odor cue. A clove oil control did not condition badgers. This work has been an important step before proceeding to full-scale field trials for protecting growing crops on a wider scale. (JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 72(3):785–791; 2008)     

Elevated CO2 alters deployment of roots in “small” growth containers

Since European badgers (Meles meles L.) form non-cooperative groups in parts of their geographic range, but are solitary elsewhere, their social systems have been at the centre of a debate about the evolution of group living in the Carnivora. In a recent review of models of non-cooperative sociality, Woodroffe and Macdonald (1993) presented evidence in favour of two hypotheses, which suggested that badger groups might form because either the distribution of blocks of foodrich habitat, or the economics of excavating new setts, prevented the division of group territories into individual territories. We present data upon the response of badger spatial organisation to a reduction in food-patch dispersion, brought about by the conversion of carthwormpoor arable land to earthworm-rich pasture over a 15-year period. This change in the distribution of earthworm-rich habitats was accompanied by territory fission, facilitated by the excavation of new setts. This indicates that the availability of sett sites had not constrained territory size at the start of the study. However, sett distribution did define the size and configuration of the daughter territories. We also show that variation among territories in the availability of food-rich habitats was reflected in the reproductive rates and body weights of the groups that inhabited them, although there was no detectable effect upon group size.     

Acanthocheilonema delicata n. sp. (Nematoda: Filarioidea) from Japanese badgers (Meles anakuma): Description,molecular identification,and Wolbachia screening

Acanthocheilonema delicata n. sp. (Filarioidea: Onchocercidae: Onchocercinae) is described based on adult filarioids and microfilariae obtained from subcutaneous connective tissues and skin, respectively, of Japanese badgers (Meles anakuma) in Wakayama Prefecture, Japan. No endemic species of the genus had been found in Japan. Recently, some filarioids (e.g., Acanthocheilonema reconditum, Dirofilaria spp., and Onchocerca spp.) have come to light as causative agents of zoonosis worldwide. The new species was readily distinguished from its congeners by morphologic characteristics such as body length, body width, esophagus length, spicule length, and the length of microfilariae. Based on the molecular data of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) gene, A. delicata n. sp. was included in the clade of the genus Acanthocheilonema but differed from two other congeneric species available for study, A. viteae and A. reconditum. Acanthocheilonema delicata n. sp. did not harbor Wolbachia. It is likely that the fauna of filarioids from mammals on the Japanese islands is characterized by a high level of endemicity.     

Seasonal and inter-individual variation in testosterone levels in badgers <Emphasis Type="Italic">Meles meles</Emphasis>: evidence for the existence of two endocrinological phenotypes

Elevated testosterone levels can lower condition and increase parasites. We analysed testosterone in 84 blood samples of wild European badgers Meles meles collected at regular intervals (winter = mating season; spring = end of mating season; summer = minor mating peak; autumn = reproductive quiescence), and related variation to body condition, subcaudal gland secretion, parasite burden, and bite wounding. All males showed elevated levels in winter and low levels in autumn. In neither season did testosterone correlate with fitness-related parameters. However, two different endocrinological phenotypes existed in spring and summer. Whilst some males lowered their testosterone to levels comparable to autumnal quiescence (Type 1), others maintained elevated levels comparable to those during winter (Type 2). In spring and summer high levels were correlated with lower body condition and increased parasite burden, and Type 2 males tended to suffer higher mortality rates than Type 1. No animals older than 6 years adopted phenotype 2, indicating that males either switch phenotypes with age or that Type 2 results in lower life expectancy, evidencing the costs of male reproduction in badgers.     

张广才岭藏獾洞穴生境选择

2008年9月至2009年8月,在黑龙江省方正林业局新风林场,用不定宽样线法对藏獾洞穴生境选择进行研究,共记录了55组藏獾洞穴,藏獾洞口平均直径为(27.40±7.15)cm,洞深平均为(84.18±22.04)cm,倾角平均为(26.36±9.10)°,洞口总数=3.02个常用洞数+0.80个不常用洞数+0.56个废弃洞数。相对于对照样方而言,藏獾洞穴更偏爱选择位于郁闭度和植被盖度小,灌木密度大、距离近,乔木距离远,距水源和农田近、人为干扰距离远,坡度较缓的向阳中坡位的生境。资源选择函数模型为:logit(p)=246.980-1.059×植被盖度-0.703×距水源距离-1.403×坡度-45.005×坡向,模型的正确预测率为93.9%。     

Scent-marking with the subcaudal gland by the European badger, Meles meles L.

European badgers, Meles meles, possess a large subcaudal gland which is used for scent-marking the territory and other members of the clan. It was shown experimentally that a badger can distinguish secretions from different individuals. Dominant males scent-mark most, and lactating females more than other females. Scent-marks are distributed along the border of the territory, on bedding materials and around the sett, and on all members of the clan, especially females and cubs. The data support, in many details, the hypothesis that scent-making in badgers serves to establish an asymmetry of contest during encounters with intruders.     

The Ectoparasites of the European Badger, Meles meles, and the Behavior of the Host-Specific Flea, Paraceras melis

The badger-specific flea, Paraceras melis, jumps repeatedly when separated from its host Meles meles; thereafter fleas settled into sheltered positions. After separation from badgers, some 42% of fleas (n = 63) voided their gut contents; this was associated with a significant increase in mean jumping distance. The maximum longevity of fleas away from the host was 89 days, with 50% mortality at around 35 days. Badger lice, Trichodectes melis, survived for up to 3 days postcapture. We conclude that the badger's habit of frequently swapping dens with a mean period of return of 6 days is unlikely to bring about significant mortality of adult fleas but may effectively eradicate lice. Fleas abandoned in bedding in a simulated badger sett were mobile, being drawn toward light and moving upward. This response would draw the fleas to the den entrance, which may be a suitable site to intercept returning badgers. The fleas responded to stimuli which might signal the proximity of the host: they jumped toward sources of carbon dioxide and of carbon dioxide in air current directed at the flea. The strongest response was seen when a mixture of stimuli consisting of carbon dioxide, a dark circle of card, and movement were tested; the majority of fleas jumped toward the mixed stimulus. Finally, fleas separated from the host responded to exhaled air by running and jumping; this is in marked contrast to their response to those stimuli when on the host, when fleas run downward and very rarely jump. These contrasting observations find adaptive explanation in the two contexts.     

Niche relations among three sympatric Mediterranean carnivores

Previous studies carried out in the Doñana National Park reported that red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) were killed by Iberian lynxes (Lynx pardinus), whereas similar-sized Eurasian badgers (Meles meles) were not. Therefore, we predicted that fox would avoid lynx predation risk by niche segregation whereas we did not expect such a segregation between badger and lynx. As an approach for evaluating our predictions, we compared their diet, activity patterns, and habitat use in an area of Doñana where the three carnivores are sympatric. Lynxes preyed almost uniquely on European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), and though badgers and foxes were omnivorous, rabbits also were a major prey, resulting in high overlaps throughout the year. However, badgers preyed largely on small rabbits, whereas lynxes and foxes preyed mainly on medium-sized rabbits. There were also interspecific differences in activity patterns. Maximum levels of activity among lynxes were during sunrise and dusk (49–67%). Foxes were most active during dusk and night (34–67%), and badgers were mainly nocturnal (53–87%). Though there were seasonal differences in the amount of activity of each species, specific activity patterns changed little throughout the year. There was a strong difference in annual habitat use by the three species (P?MAX) and the resting (P_MIN) periods. During P_MIN, foxes used the Mediterranean scrubland intensively (40% of locations on average), but during P_MAX, they used the pastureland much more intensively despite this habitat being poorer in their main prey (rabbits). As a consequence, foxes and lynxes exhibited segregation in their habitat use during the active period. Badgers also used the Mediterranean scrubland intensively, especially during P_MIN. There were no seasonal differences in habitat use for lynx and fox, but there was for badgers (P?相似文献   

Distribution and population density of badgers Meles meles in Luxembourg

1. The distribution and density of Eurasian badgers Meles meles in Luxembourg was estimated by gathering information about the location of badger setts with a questionnaire survey, by visiting 708 setts in order to classify them as ‘main setts’ or ‘outliers’, and by estimating social group size by directly counting emerging badgers. 2. Badgers were found to be widely distributed in Luxembourg, with a minimum main sett density of 0.17 setts/km². Setts were sited preferentially in forest habitat. The mean minimum group size was 4.6 badgers. 3. The Luxembourg badger population was conservatively estimated to contain at least 2010 adult and young badgers (95% CI 1674–2347) in spring 2002, equivalent to a density of 0.78 adult and young badgers/km² (95% CI 0.65–0.91). This is moderate compared to most of continental Europe.     

Body size clines in the European badger and the abundant centre hypothesis

Aim To test the abundant centre hypothesis by analysing the physical and climatic factors that influence body size variation in the European badger (Meles meles). Location Data were compiled from 35 locations across Europe. Methods We used body mass, body length and condylo‐basal length (CBL) as surrogates of size. We also compiled data on latitude, several climatic variables, habitat type and site position relative to the range edge. We collapsed all continuous climatic variables into independent vectors using principal components analysis (PCA), and used a general linear model to explain the morphometric variation in badger populations across the species’ range. Results Body mass and body length were nonlinearly and significantly related to latitude. In contrast, CBL was linearly related to latitude. Body mass changed nonlinearly along the temperature (PC1) gradient, with the highest values observed at mid‐range. Furthermore, body mass, body length and CBL differed significantly among habitats, with badgers showing larger size in temperate habitats and core areas relative to peripheral zones. Main conclusions Our analysis supports the nonlinear pattern predicted by the abundant centre hypothesis only for body mass and body length. These results imply that individuals are largest and heaviest at the centre of the climatic range of badger distribution. Variation of CBL with latitude follows a linear trend, consistent with Bergmann’s rule. Our results provide mixed support for the abundant centre hypothesis, and suggest food availability/quality to be the main mechanism underlying body size clines in this species.     

Faecal DNA typing as a tool for investigating territorial behaviour of badgers (Meles meles)

We use data from three social groups of badgers (Meles meles) to illustrate how faecal DNA genotyping could be used in scent-marking studies. Faecal samples collected from latrines were genotyped to determine the individual identity and sex of badgers engaging in territorial behaviour and the frequency with which those individuals defecated at particular latrines. The method is potentially applicable to other species of carnivores that use latrines to mark their territories.