Behavioral responses of male elk to hunting risk

Prey respond to predation risk with a range of behavioral tactics that can vary based on space use and hunting mode of the predator. Unlike other predators, human hunters are often more spatially and temporally restricted, which creates a period of short-duration, high-intensity predation risk for prey. Consequently, identifying the roles different hunting modes (i.e., archery and rifle), hunts for targeted and non-targeted species, and landscape features play in altering spatial and temporal responses of prey to predation risk by humans is important for effective management of harvested populations. From 2009 to 2016, we used a large-scale experiment including 50 animal-years of location data from 38 unique male elk (Cervus canadensis) to quantify changes in movement and resource selection in response to hunters during 3 separate 5-day controlled hunts for antlered males (elk archery, deer [Odocoileus spp.] rifle, and elk rifle) at the Starkey Experimental Forest and Range in northeast Oregon, USA. We evaluated competing hypotheses regarding elk responses to varying levels of prey risk posed by the different hunt types. We predicted that the strength of elk behavioral responses would increase with perceived hunter lethality (i.e., weak response to elk archery but similar response to elk and deer rifle hunts) and that prey response would be closely associated with hunter activity within the diel cycle (greater during diurnal than nocturnal hours) and across hunting seasons. Elk responses were strongest during diurnal hours when hunters were active on the landscape and were generally more pronounced during both rifle hunts than during the archery hunt (supporting our perceived lethality hypothesis). Male elk avoided open roads across all periods except during nocturnal hours of the breeding season and alternated between avoidance of areas with high canopy cover during nocturnal hours and selection during diurnal hours. In combination these patterns led to distinct distributional changes of male elk from pre-hunt to hunt periods. Patterns of male elk selection highlight the importance of managing for heterogeneous landscapes to meet a variety of habitat, harvest, hunter satisfaction, and escapement objectives.     

Bark Beetle-Affected Forests Provide Elk Only a Marginal Refuge from Hunters

For nearly 2 decades, the forests of the Rocky Mountains in the United States experienced a bark-beetle (Dendoctronus ponderosae) epidemic. The number of dead and falling trees from this epidemic likely will affect how elk (Cervus canadensis) and hunters use the forest and their interactions. Downed trees potentially create a component of refuge habitat that could affect the effectiveness of hunting to regulate abundance of growing elk populations. We evaluated how forests affected by bark beetles in south-central Wyoming, USA, influenced resource selection of 50 female elk and 374 hunters in 2012–2016, and interactions between elk and hunters. We employed global positioning system (GPS) technology on elk and hunters, and developed a satellite-derived land classification specifically depicting beetle-affected forests. We tested the predictions that elk would increase use of beetle-killed areas from summer to the hunting season, and that hunters would avoid beetle-killed areas regardless of elk use. Elk increased use of beetle-killed areas during hunting seasons as did hunters during the archery season; however, during the rifle season, hunters avoided beetle-killed areas. Nevertheless, during the rifle season, areas of beetle-kill with a high probability of elk occurrence dampened the aversion hunters had towards beetle-killed areas. Therefore, in contrast to our expectations, forests that have been altered by the bark-beetle epidemic may only function marginally as a refuge for elk. Our study area was at the beginning of the tree-fall phase (i.e., ~3–7 yr after peak infestation) of the bark-beetle epidemic; thus, future research efforts should focus on how a continued increase in downed trees will influence interactions between elk and hunters. At current levels of tree fall, however, beetle-kill should not limit the ability of managers to regulate elk herds through harvest. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.     

Effects of hunter access and habitat security on elk habitat selection in landscapes with a public and private land matrix

Traditional elk habitat management on public land has focused on providing security habitat for bull elk during the hunting season to provide for both adequate hunter opportunity and bull survival. This paradigm has given less consideration to adult female elk habitat use, patterns of adjacent land ownership, and hunter access. This paradigm also was developed when elk population sizes were much smaller in many areas. In many Rocky Mountain states, the focus of elk population management has recently shifted to reducing or maintaining elk population sizes, necessitating a better understanding of the implications of security habitat management, as well as patterns of adjacent land ownership and hunter access, on adult female elk. We addressed this need by testing the hypotheses that during the hunting season: 1) adult female elk selection for areas prohibiting or limiting hunter access is stronger than elk selection for publicly owned and managed elk security habitat, 2) these effects occur during the archery hunting period and intensify during the rifle hunting period, and 3) the effects of hunter access on selection are consistent among herds that occupy landscapes characterized by a matrix of public and private lands. We used global position system locations collected from 82 females in 2 different Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) elk herds to evaluate effects of hunter access, security habitat as defined by the Hillis paradigm, and other landscape attributes on adult female elk resource selection during the pre-hunting, archery, rifle, and post-hunting periods. We found that female elk selection for areas restricting public hunting access was stronger than selection for security habitat in both study areas, and that the density of roads open to motorized use was the strongest predictor of elk distribution. Increases in selection for areas that restricted hunting access occurred during the rifle hunting period, and we did not find consistent evidence these movements were triggered by the archery hunting period. Our results provide evidence that in landscapes characterized by a matrix of public and privately owned lands, traditional concepts of elk security habitat need to be expanded to also include areas that restrict hunter access to plan for elk population management that is regulated through adult female harvest. Future efforts should investigate whether elk use of areas that restrict hunter access are flexible behavioral responses to hunting risk, or if these behaviors are passed from generation to generation such that a learned pattern of private land use becomes the normal movement pattern rather than a short-term behavioral response. Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.     

Influence of Landscape Characteristics on Hunter Space Use and Success

Sport hunting of ungulates is a predominant recreational pursuit and the primary tool for managing their populations in North America and beyond, given its influence on ungulate distributions, social organization, and population performance. Similarly, land management, such as motorized vehicle access, influences ungulate distributions during and outside hunting seasons. Although research on ungulate responses to hunting and land use is widespread, knowledge gaps persist about space use of hunters and what landscape features discriminate among hunt types and between successful and unsuccessful hunters. We used telemetry location data from hunters (n = 341) to estimate space use from 2008–2013 during 3 types of controlled, 5-day hunts for antlered mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and elk (Cervus canadensis) in northeastern Oregon, USA: archery elk, rifle deer, and rifle elk. To evaluate space use, we developed utilization distributions for each hunter, created core areas (50% contours) for groups of hunters, and derived several metrics of space-use overlap between successful and unsuccessful hunters. We also modeled predictors of space use using resource utilization functions with beta regression and stepwise model building. Hunter space use was compressed, with even the largest core area (unsuccessful rifle elk hunters) encompassing <16% (1,178 ha) of the area. We found strong similarities in space use of rifle hunters compared to archers, and core areas of successful hunters were markedly smaller than those of unsuccessful hunters (e.g., = 104 ha vs. 681 ha, respectively, for archers). Percentage cover and distance from open roads were the most consistent covariates in the 6 final models (successful vs. unsuccessful for each of 3 hunts) but with different signs. For example, predicted use of archery and rifle elk hunters increased with cover but decreased for rifle deer hunters. Although the same covariates were in the final models for unsuccessful and successful rifle elk hunters, their negligible spatial overlap suggested they sought those features in different locales, a pattern also documented for rifle deer hunters. Our models performed well (Spearman's rank correlation coefficients = 0.99 for 5 of 6 models), reflecting their utility for managing hunters and landscapes. Our results suggest that strategic management of open roads and forest cover can benefit managers seeking to balance hunter opportunity and satisfaction with harvest objectives, especially for species of special concern such as mule deer, and that differences in space use among hunter groups should be accounted for in hunting season designs. © 2021 The Wildlife Society. This article has been contributed to by US Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.     

Evaluating Indirect Effects of Hunting on Mule Deer Spatial Behavior

Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) are widely hunted throughout western North America and are experiencing population declines across much of their range. Consequently, understanding the direct and indirect effects of hunting is important for management of mule deer populations. Managers can influence deer mortality rates through changes in hunting season length or authorized tag numbers. Little is known, however, about how hunting can affect site fidelity patterns and subsequent habitat use and movement patterns of mule deer. Understanding these patterns is especially important for adult females because changes in behavior may influence their ability to acquire resources and ultimately affect their productivity. Between 2008 and 2013, we obtained global positioning system locations for 42 adult female deer at the Starkey Experimental Forest and Range in northeast Oregon, USA, during 5-day control and treatment periods in which hunters were absent (pre-hunt), present but not actively hunting (scout and post-hunt), and actively hunting male mule deer (hunt) on the landscape. We estimated summer home ranges and 5-day use areas during pre-hunt and hunt periods and calculated overlap metrics across home ranges and use areas to assess site fidelity within and across years. We used step selection functions to evaluate whether female mule deer responded to human hunters by adjusting fine-scale habitat selection and movement patterns during the hunting season compared to the pre-hunt period. Mule deer maintained site fidelity despite disturbance by hunters with 72 ± 4% (SE) within-year overlap between summer home ranges and hunt use areas and 54 ± 7% inter-annual overlap among pre-hunt use areas and 56 ± 7% among hunt use areas. Mule deer diurnal movement rates, when hunters are active on the landscape, were higher during the hunting period versus pre-hunt or scout periods. In contrast, nocturnal movement rates, when hunters are inactive on the landscape, were similar between hunting and non-hunting periods. Additionally, during the hunt, female mule deer hourly movements increased in areas with high greenness values, indicating that mule deer spent less time in areas with more vegetative productivity. Female mule deer maintained consistent habitat selection patterns before and during hunts, selecting areas that offered more forest canopy cover and high levels of vegetative productivity. Our results indicate that deer at Starkey are adopting behavioral strategies in response to hunters by increasing their movement rates and selecting habitat in well-established ranges. Therefore, considering site fidelity behavior in management planning could provide important information about the spatial behavior of animals and potential energetic costs incurred, especially by non-target animals during hunting season. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.     

How Size and Condition Influence Survival and Cause-Specific Mortality of Female Elk

The size of animal populations fluctuates with number of births, rate of immigration, rate of emigration, and number of deaths. For many ungulate populations, adult female survival is the most important factor influencing population growth. Therefore, increased understanding of survival and causes of mortality for adult females is fundamental for conservation and management. The objectives of our study were to quantify survival rates of female elk (Cervus canadensis) and determine cause-specific mortality. We predicted that hunter harvest would be the leading cause of mortality. Further, we predicted that hunters would harvest animals that were in prime age (2–9 yr) and in better condition than elk predated by mountain lions (Puma concolor). From 2015 to 2017, we captured 376 female elk in central Utah, USA. We assessed body size and condition of captured elk, fitted each animal with a global positioning system-collar, and determined cause of death when we received mortality signals. We estimated survival using Kaplan-Meier estimates and Cox proportional hazard models within an Akaike's Information Criterion model selection framework to identify covariates that influenced survival. We analyzed differences in size and condition measurements between harvested elk and predated elk using analysis of variance tests. Our best model indicated consistent survival across years; mean survival was 78.3 ± 3.5% (SE) including hunter harvest and 95.5 ± 1.7% without hunter harvest. In decreasing order of importance, elk mortality occurred from hunter harvest (21.2%), mountain lion predation (3.7%), depredation removal (0.5%), automobile collision (0.3%), disease (0.3%), complications during calving (0.3%), and those characterized as undetermined (1.3%). Neck circumference and body length were negatively associated with survival, suggesting that larger animals in good condition had lower survival as a result of hunter harvest. Individuals that died because of cougar predation were smaller and had less loin muscle than the average animal. Hunters removed large, healthy, prime-aged females, individuals that likely have a greater effect on population growth than elk lost to other predators. If the proportion of larger, healthy females in the population begins to decline, hunting practices may require adjustment because hunters may be removing individuals with the greatest reproductive value. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.     

The optimal foraging theory, crowding and Swedish grouse hunters

Hunters that have options to hunt in different areas should evaluate their previous hunting success when they decide where to hunt. Following optimal foraging theory for non-human predators, we investigated if hunting success and density of other hunters on the hunting area will affect the probability of return to the same area, and if such behavioural changes will result in a higher hunting success compared to hunters that change to a new area. For this purpose, we used detailed information about willow grouse (Lagopus lagopus) hunters on state-owned land in Sweden. We found support for the optimal foraging theory application on grouse hunters’ behavioural changes according to hunting success. The return rate increased with increasing hunting success, and hunters that returned to the same area also increased their success compared to hunters that changed to a new area. Only one third of the hunters returned to the same area the subsequent year. We also found a negative effect of density of hunters in an area on hunters’ return rates and their hunting success, suggesting crowding among Swedish grouse hunters.     

Changes in Elk Resource Selection and Distributions Associated With a Late-Season Elk Hunt

ABSTRACT Changes in resource selection associated with human predation risk may alter elk distributions and availability for harvest. We used Global Positioning System data collected from telemetered female elk (Cervus elaphus) to evaluate effects of refuges (areas where hunting was prohibited), spatial variation in hunting risk, and landscape attributes on resource selection within an established Greater Yellowstone Area, USA, winter range. We also evaluated elk distributions during and outside of a late-season hunting period. Refuge areas and landscape attributes such as habitat type and snow water equivalents (SWE) affected resource selection. Elk selection for flat grasslands increased as SWE increased, likely because these areas were windswept, leaving grasses exposed for foraging. Elk distributions differed during hunting and no-hunting periods. During the hunting period, elk shifted to privately owned refuge areas and the estimated odds of elk occupying refuge areas more than doubled. Risk-driven changes in resource selection resulted in reduced availability of elk for harvest. Elk selection for areas where hunting is prohibited presents a challenge for resource managers that use hunting as a tool for managing populations and influences grazing patterns on private ranchlands.     

A human-induced landscape of fear influences foraging behavior of brown bears

Animals adapt their foraging behavior to variations in food availability and predation risk. In Sweden, brown bears (Ursus arctos) depend on a nearly continuous intake of berries, especially bilberries (Vaccinium myrtillus) during late summer and early autumn to fatten up prior to hibernation. This overlaps with the bear hunting season that starts on 21 August. Bilberry occurrence varies across space, as does human-induced mortality risk. Here, we hypothesize that brown bears select for areas with a high probability of bilberry occurrence across a boreal forest ecosystem in Sweden (H1), and that human-induced mortality risk reduces bear selection for bilberries (H2). In addition, we hypothesized that bears that survived the hunting season avoided bilberry areas associated with high risk, whereas bears that were later killed selected more strongly for berries and less against risk prior to the hunting season (H3). To evaluate our hypotheses, we used resource selection functions to contrast bear GPS relocation data (N = 35, 2012–2015) and random positions within the bearś home range with generalized linear mixed effect models against two focal variables: a map predicting bilberry occurrence and a map predicting human-induced mortality risk. We found that bears selected for areas with a high probability of bilberry occurrence (supporting H1), but avoided these areas if they were associated with and high risk of hunting mortality (supporting H2). The killed and surviving bears did not differ in their selection for bilberries, but they did differ in their selection against risk (partially supporting H3). Surviving bears strongly avoided high risk areas, whereas killed bears responded less to risk and selected for high-risk areas with a low probability of bilberry occurrence. This suggests that killed bears selected for other food sources than berries in high risk areas, which exposed them to human hunters. We conclude that bears respond to a landscape of fear during the berry season and that different foraging strategies may have a direct impact on individual mortality during the hunting season.     

Autumn resource selection by female elk in a recently burned landscape in western Montana

Wildfire activity across the western United States has increased in recent decades, with wildfires burning at a higher severity and larger scale. The effect of wildfires on forest structure and wildlife habitat is largely influenced by wildfire severity; however, few studies have evaluated the effects of wildfire severity on resource selection of ungulates, particularly during hunting seasons, when knowledge of resource selection is essential for making informed management decisions. To fill this knowledge gap, we fit resource selection probability functions for female elk (Cervus canadensis) in years 2 and 3 post-wildfire to evaluate the effects of wildfire severity and other environmental and anthropogenic factors on elk resource selection during 4 autumn periods with varying levels of hunter pressure (prehunt, archery-only, backcountry rifle, and rifle). The probability of female elk selecting low-severity burned forests during the prehunt, archery-only, backcountry rifle, and rifle periods was 0.99 (95% credible interval [CrI] = 0.98–1.00), 0.99 (CrI = 0.97–1.00), 0.99 (CrI = 0.99–1.00), and 0.0010 (CrI = 0.00067–0.0015]), respectively, and did not strongly differ from the probability of selecting high-severity burned forests. During the prehunt period, elk also selected areas with greater forage quality and areas farther from open roads. Elk selected similar resources during the archery period, and selected areas with higher hunter pressure. Elk started leaving hunting districts that had higher snowpack (i.e., snow water equivalent; β = −0.84, CrI = −0.96–−0.72) and allowed rifle hunting (β = −5.39, CrI = −5.80–−4.97) but still selected areas with higher hunter pressure (β = 0.92, CrI = 0.78–1.07) during the backcountry rifle period. During the rifle period, elk continued avoiding areas with high snowpack (β = −3.96, CrI = −4.22–−3.71) and started selecting areas with lower hunter pressure (β = −1.71, CrI = −1.79–−1.64) and lower canopy cover. Overall, wildfire affected elk distributions in early autumn 2 and 3 years after fire in our study area, with limited differences in resource selection between wildfire severity categories. By late autumn, hunter pressure and snowpack were the primary factors influencing elk distribution, and wildfire had little influence on selection. When estimating wildfire effects on elk movements during autumn and establishing appropriate hunting regulations, managers should consider the hunting season, hunter pressure, timing and amount of snowpack, location of traditional winter range, and the seasonal elk range burned, as all these factors may contribute to how elk use the landscape in autumn.     

Know Thy Enemy: Experience Affects Elk Translocation Success in Risky Landscapes

ABSTRACT To maximize success, reintroduction programs generally select predator-free release areas having high habitat quality. Past studies provide little insight into recovery efforts where multiple, potentially novel, mortality hazards occur. The ability of translocated animals to cope with novel environments can be affected by both pre- and postrelease experiences with habitat and mortality risks. We experimentally released elk (Cervus elaphus) having different background experiences into an area where predators and hunters were prevalent and habitat quality varied. Using a competing risks approach, we predicted the postrelease survival of individuals and their fidelity to release areas as a function of animal source and postrelease encounters with forage resources and areas used by wolves (Canis lupus) or humans. Mortality patterns were consistent with prerelease exposure to mortality risks but not habitat differences among source areas. Wolf predation, poaching, and legal Native hunting were equivalent in magnitude and accounted for the majority of elk mortalities. Familiarity with either wolves or hunters prior to release yielded first-year survival rates 1.9-2.2 times greater than observed for animals naive to both risks. These 2 primary sources of mortality traded off temporally as well as spatially given the proximity of roads, which wolves avoided. The prevalence of forage resources in release areas increased fidelity to release sites but coincided with higher mortality risk during the critical first year, potentially setting an ecological trap for animals naïve to local risks. Translocated individuals largely mediated their respective vulnerabilities over time, showing second-year survival rates equivalent to resident elk. In addition to using source populations that are able to adjust to mortality risks in release areas, spatial and temporal variation in mortality risks might be exploited when planning releases to increase the success of translocations into risky landscapes. (JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 71(2):541–554; 2007)     

Influence of habitat features and hunter behavior on white-tailed deer harvest

Sport hunting may help in controlling cervid populations over large areas. As with natural predators, several environmental factors can influence sport harvest. A better understanding of the environmental variables that limit the efficiency of sport hunting could provide guidelines for more efficient wildlife management using hunting. We studied white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) hunting on a high deer density island where hunting was the sole form of predation. Our objective was to study the behavior of sport hunters and determine the habitat characteristics (e.g., abundance of deer forage, visibility of the deer from the hunter's point of view, and accessibility of the territory to hunters) that are associated with a successful harvest. We collected movements and harvest site location data from 477 hunters equipped with handheld Global Positioning System (GPS) units. Harvest sites were visited and characterized, along with a paired random site, to determine the environmental conditions associated with a successful hunt. We also developed a model to predict the daily number of deer seen by hunters considering weather conditions, hunter characteristics (e.g., age, experience), and date of hunting. We used the mean number of deer seen per hunter per day as a relative index of local density in each hunted territory. At both the site and landscape scales, the combination of visibility and access had a positive effect on the distribution of harvested deer. Habitat types with less visual obstruction from vegetation enabled hunters to see more deer in a given day. At the site scale, harvested deer were located in areas with a lower density of access routes compared to areas where hunters travelled throughout the day. Using an innovative approach of studying hunter behavior with GPS technology, digital maps, and questionnaires, we highlighted the factors associated with hunter success. Our study suggests that habitat characteristics could be modified to increase harvest by improving accessibility and visibility near roads. Creating openings in mature and regenerating forest near access roads could make sport hunting a more efficient management tool, but the potential impact of increased forage availability in forest openings should not be overlooked. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.     

Effects of Humans on Behaviour of Wildlife Exceed Those of Natural Predators in a Landscape of Fear

Background

Human disturbance can influence wildlife behaviour, which can have implications for wildlife populations. For example, wildlife may be more vigilant near human disturbance, resulting in decreased forage intake and reduced reproductive success. We measured the effects of human activities compared to predator and other environmental factors on the behaviour of elk (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus 1758) in a human-dominated landscape in Alberta, Canada.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We collected year-round behavioural data of elk across a range of human disturbances. We estimated linear mixed models of elk behaviour and found that human factors (land-use type, traffic and distance from roads) and elk herd size accounted for more than 80% of variability in elk vigilance. Elk decreased their feeding time when closer to roads, and road traffic volumes of at least 1 vehicle every 2 hours induced elk to switch into a more vigilant behavioural mode with a subsequent loss in feeding time. Other environmental factors, thought crucial in shaping vigilance behaviour in elk (natural predators, reproductive status of females), were not important. The highest levels of vigilance were recorded on public lands where hunting and motorized recreational activities were cumulative compared to the national park during summer, which had the lowest levels of vigilance.

Conclusions/Significance

In a human-dominated landscape, effects of human disturbance on elk behaviour exceed those of habitat and natural predators. Humans trigger increased vigilance and decreased foraging in elk. However, it is not just the number of people but also the type of human activity that influences elk behaviour (e.g. hiking vs. hunting). Quantifying the actual fitness costs of human disturbance remains a challenge in field studies but should be a primary focus for future researches. Some species are much more likely to be disturbed by humans than by non-human predators: for these species, quantifying human disturbance may be the highest priority for conservation.     

Lionfish predators use flared fin displays to initiate cooperative hunting

Despite considerable study, mystery surrounds the use of signals that initiate cooperative hunting in animals. Using a labyrinth test chamber, we examined whether a lionfish, Dendrochirus zebra, would initiate cooperative hunts with piscine partners. We found that D. zebra uses a stereotyped flared fin display to alert conspecific and heterospecific lionfish species Pterois antennata to the presence of prey. Per capita success rate was significantly higher for cooperative hunters when compared with solitary ones, with hunt responders assisting hunt initiators in cornering the prey using their large extended pectoral fins. The initiators would most often take the first strike at the group of prey, but both hunters would then alternate striking at the remaining prey. Results suggest that the cooperative communication signal may be characteristic to the lionfish family, as interspecific hunters were equally coordinated and successful as intraspecific hunters. Our findings emphasize the complexity of collaborative foraging behaviours in lionfish; the turn-taking in strikes suggests that individuals do not solely try to maximize their own hunting success: instead they equally share the resources between themselves. Communicative group hunting has enabled Pteroine fish to function as highly efficient predators.     

Willow grouse bag size is more sensitive to variation in hunter effort than to variation in willow grouse density

Annual variation in harvested animals (hereafter bag size) is often used as an index of population abundance when investigating population dynamics. Few studies have evaluated how well bag size tracks population change despite its widespread use. Two recent studies on grouse harvest statistics have reached contrasting conclusions. Th ere is limited information about the functional response of hunters in relation to varying game densities, and effort is seldom recorded. We investigated how much of the variation in bag size (total number of harvested grouse km^?2) is explained by variation in willow grouse Lagopus lagopus density (adult and young grouse km^?2) and hunting eff ort (total number of hunting days km^?2). We also evaluated catch per unit effort (CPUE) as an index of grouse abundance, and estimated the response in harvest rate (total bag size in relation to total grouse density) to varying hunting effort. We used data from the 88 management areas on state land in Jämtland county, Sweden (1996–2007), where hunting days and bag size are recorded in detail. Willow grouse density was estimated in four of these management areas in August using line transects and distance sampling. The hunting effort and total grouse density explained most of the variation in bag size (R²= 0.89). Bag size was twice as sensitive to changes in hunting effort compared to changes in grouse density. More than a ten times change in the grouse population density was required to one unit change in bag size. The use of CPUE did not provide a better alternative index of grouse density, and variation in density only explained 23% of the variation in CPUE. Harvest rate showed a strong relationship with hunting effort, and we suggest that an upper limit in hunting effort can be used to reduce the risk of high harvest rates. Hunters became more efficient at low densities and controlling hunting effort is most important when there are indications of population lows and/or poor breeding. CPUE may be less sensitive to changes in game abundance than previously assumed, and bag size as a proxy for population density would then depend on the ability of hunters to adjust their effort according to population change. We speculate that this ability will depend on whether or not hunters have long‐term experience of a hunting area where they can return to hunt throughout the hunting season. We propose that recording hunting eff ort should be encouraged and possible correlations with game abundance and other factors such as weather should be investigated for game species.     

Public Access for Pheasant Hunters: Understanding an Emerging Need

Ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus; i.e., pheasant) hunting participation is declining across North America, reflecting a larger downward trend in American hunting participation and threatening benefits to grassland conservation and rural economies. To stabilize and expand the pheasant hunting population, we must first identify factors that influence pheasant hunter participation. We used an extensive in-person hunter survey to test the hypothesis that hunter demographics interact with social-ecological traits of hunting locations to affect hunter decisions, outcomes, and perceptions. We built a series of Bayesian mixed effects models to parse variation in demographics, perceptions, and hunt outcomes of pheasant hunters interviewed at public access hunting sites across 3 regions in Nebraska, USA, that varied in pheasant abundance and proximity to urban population centers. Among pheasant hunters in Nebraska, access to private lands was negatively related to the human population density of a pheasant hunter's home ZIP code and the distance a hunter had traveled to reach a hunting location. Pheasant hunters interviewed closer to metropolitan areas tended to be more urban and travel shorter distances, and their parties were more likely to include youth but less likely to include dogs. Hunter satisfaction was positively associated with seeing and harvesting pheasants and hunting with youth. Whereas youth participation and the number of pheasants seen varied by study region, hunter satisfaction did not differ across regions, suggesting that hunters may calibrate their expectations and build their parties based on where they plan to hunt. The variation in hunter demographics across hunting locations and disconnects between social and ecological correlates of hunter satisfaction suggests that diverse pheasant hunting constituencies will be best served by diverse pheasant hunting opportunities. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.     

Duck hunter activity,success, and satisfaction on public hunting areas

Because hunting disturbance can influence local distribution of ducks and their availability to hunters, managers often limit access to hunting areas to improve hunting success and satisfaction. Few studies have quantified the effectiveness of public area access restrictions on duck hunter activity, harvest, or hunters' satisfaction with their hunting experience. We used a cross-over design over 6 consecutive hunting seasons (2008–2009 through 2013–2014) on State Wildlife Areas (SWAs) in northeastern Colorado, USA, to compare the effects of restricted hunting access regulations and regulations without these restrictions on duck hunter activity, harvest success, harvest levels, and satisfaction. We also considered effects of SWA types, duck abundance, temperature, precipitation, use of equipment by duck hunting parties, and, for hunter satisfaction, hunting success, hunting parties' satisfaction with ducks seen, habitat conditions, crowding from other hunters, and SWA regulations. The number of days when duck hunters had access to restricted properties was about half that on unrestricted properties, and unrestricted properties were used by about twice as many duck hunting parties, but the mean number of hunting parties per available hunting day and mean party size were similar under the 2 types of regulations. Most (56%) duck hunting parties did not bag any ducks; hunting success (harvest of ≥1 duck by a hunting party) was best explained by a model that included a regulation type × hunting season interaction, a SWA type × month interaction, hunter density the previous day, an index of hunter investment (number of decoys used and whether dogs and calls were used), and temperature. Successful hunting parties harvested 1.92 ± 1.60 (SD) ducks/hunter/day (range = 0.1–7.0); the best model predicting the number of ducks harvested per hunter in successful parties included a regulation type × hunting season interaction, a SWA type × month interaction, hunter density the previous day, an index of hunter investment, temperature, and precipitation. Overall satisfaction of duck hunting parties with a day's hunt averaged 3.62 ± 1.20 based on a rank scale of 1 (very unsatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied), and was best explained by a model that included hunting party success; hunter investment; temperature; and satisfaction with duck numbers, habitat conditions, hunting regulations, and crowding. While greatly reducing days available for hunting, access restrictions were associated with improved chances of hunting parties successfully harvesting ≥1 duck in 5 of 6 hunting seasons, and substantially greater numbers of ducks harvested by hunters in successful parties in 1 of 6 hunting seasons. Restrictions did not have a strong direct effect on hunting parties' satisfaction with a day's hunt. Uncontrolled factors, including weather and use of equipment by hunters, had important influences on hunter success, harvest, and satisfaction. Managers should carefully assess hunting activity, hunter expectations and desires, and hunting area characteristics when considering access restrictions on public hunting areas.     

Linking anti‐predator behaviour to prey demography reveals limited risk effects of an actively hunting large carnivore

Ecological theory predicts that the diffuse risk cues generated by wide‐ranging, active predators should induce prey behavioural responses but not major, population‐ or community‐level consequences. We evaluated the non‐consumptive effects (NCEs) of an active predator, the grey wolf (Canis lupus), by simultaneously tracking wolves and the behaviour, body fat, and pregnancy of elk (Cervus elaphus), their primary prey in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. When wolves approached within 1 km, elk increased their rates of movement, displacement and vigilance. Even in high‐risk areas, however, these encounters occurred only once every 9 days. Ultimately, despite 20‐fold variation in the frequency of encounters between wolves and individual elk, the risk of predation was not associated with elk body fat or pregnancy. Our findings suggest that the ecological consequences of actively hunting large carnivores, such as the wolf, are more likely transmitted by consumptive effects on prey survival than NCEs on prey behaviour.     

Implications of chronic wasting disease,cougar predation,and reduced recruitment for elk management

Emerging diseases and expanding carnivore populations may have profound implications for ungulate harvest management and population regulation. To better understand effects of chronic wasting disease (CWD) and cougar (Puma concolor) predation, we studied mortality and recruitment of elk (Cervus elaphus) at Wind Cave National Park (WICA) during 2005–2009. We marked 202 elk (83 subadult M and 119 subadult and ad F) with Global Positioning System (GPS) collars, observed 28 deaths during 74,220 days of monitoring, and investigated 42 additional deaths of unmarked elk found dead. Survival rates were similar for males and females and averaged 0.863 (SE = 0.025) annually. Leading causes of mortality included hunting (0.065, SE = 0.019), CWD (0.034, SE = 0.012), and cougar predation (0.029, SE = 0.012). Marked elk killed by hunters and cougars typically were in good physical condition and not infected with CWD. Effects of mortality on population growth were exacerbated by low rates of pregnancy (subadults = 9.5%, SE = 6.6%; ad = 76.9%, SE = 4.2%) and perinatal survival (0.49, SE = 0.085 from 1 Feb to 1 Sep). Chronic wasting disease, increased predation, and reduced recruitment reduced the rate of increase for elk at WICA to approximately λ = 1.00 (SE = 0.027) during the past decade. Lower rates of increase are mitigating effects of elk on park vegetation, other wildlife, and neighboring lands and will facilitate population control, but may reduce opportunities for elk hunting outside the park. © 2011 The Wildlife Society     

Targeting hunter distribution based on host resource selection and kill sites to manage disease risk

Endemic and emerging diseases are rarely uniform in their spatial distribution or prevalence among cohorts of wildlife. Spatial models that quantify risk‐driven differences in resource selection and hunter mortality of animals at fine spatial scales can assist disease management by identifying high‐risk areas and individuals. We used resource selection functions (RSFs) and selection ratios (SRs) to quantify sex‐ and age‐specific resource selection patterns of collared (n = 67) and hunter‐killed (n = 796) nonmigratory elk (Cervus canadensis manitobensis) during the hunting season between 2002 and 2012, in southwestern Manitoba, Canada. Distance to protected area was the most important covariate influencing resource selection and hunter‐kill sites of elk (AICw = 1.00). Collared adult males (which are most likely to be infected with bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis) and chronic wasting disease) rarely selected for sites outside of parks during the hunting season in contrast to adult females and juvenile males. The RSFs showed selection by adult females and juvenile males to be negatively associated with landscape‐level forest cover, high road density, and water cover, whereas hunter‐kill sites of these cohorts were positively associated with landscape‐level forest cover and increasing distance to streams and negatively associated with high road density. Local‐level forest was positively associated with collared animal locations and hunter‐kill sites; however, selection was stronger for collared juvenile males and hunter‐killed adult females. In instances where disease infects a metapopulation and eradication is infeasible, a principle goal of management is to limit the spread of disease among infected animals. We map high‐risk areas that are regularly used by potentially infectious hosts but currently underrepresented in the distribution of kill sites. We present a novel application of widely available data to target hunter distribution based on host resource selection and kill sites as a promising tool for applying selective hunting to the management of transmissible diseases in a game species.