Mégnin re-analysed: the case of the newborn baby girl, Paris, 1878

This paper analyses acarological evidence from a 130-year-old forensic investigation. It was the first case in forensic acarology, i.e., the first case where mites provided substantial information to estimate the post-mortem interval (PMI). In 1878, the mites found in the mummified body of a newborn baby girl in Paris, France, were studied by acarologist and forensic entomologist Jean Pierre Mégnin. Mégnin estimated around 2.4 million mites in the skull and identified them as Tyroglyphus longior (Gervais), a junior synonym of Tyrophagus longior. He suggested that the arrival of these mites at the corpse would have occurred by phoresy on carrier insects, roughly 5 months before the autopsy. There is no doubt about the identification of the mites, Mégnin was a highly respected acarologist. However, two main factors affecting the biology of Tyrophagus mites were not included in the original analysis. First, Mégnin stated that the mites were phoretic. However, he probably did not have access to information about the natural history of the species, because as a rule Tyrophagus mites are non-phoretic. Considering the omnipresence of Tyrophagus mites in soil, most likely the mites will have arrived almost immediately after death. Second, temperature was not taken into account during the estimations of the mite population growth rate. The new analysis is based on current knowledge of Tyrophagus biology and includes temperature, estimated following a handful of weather reports of the years 1877 and 1878. The new projections indicate that non-phoretic mites may have colonised the body just after death and the colony would have built up over 8 months, contrary to the 5 months proposed by Mégnin. This new lapse of time agrees with the PMI proposed by Brouardel: on 15 January 1878 he postulated the death of the newborn to have occurred some 8 months before the autopsy.     

Carcases and mites

Mites are involved in the decomposition of animal carcases and human corpses at every stage. From initial decay at the fresh stage until dry decomposition at the skeletal stage, a huge diversity of Acari, including members of the Mesostigmata, Prostigmata, Astigmata, Endeostigmata, Oribatida and Ixodida, are an integral part of the constantly changing food webs on, in and beneath the carrion. During the desiccation stage in wave 6 of Mégnin’s system, mites can become the dominant fauna on the decomposing body. Under conditions unfavourable for the colonisation of insects, such as concealment, low temperature or mummification, mites might become the most important or even the only arthropods on a dead body. Some mite species will be represented by a few specimens, whereas others might build up in numbers to several million individuals. Astigmata are most prominent in numbers and Mesostigmata in diversity. More than 100 mite species and over 60 mite families were collected from animal carcases, and around 75 species and over 20 families from human corpses.     

Phoretic mites associated with animal and human decomposition

Phoretic mites are likely the most abundant arthropods found on carcases and corpses. They outnumber their scavenger carriers in both number and diversity. Many phoretic mites travel on scavenger insects and are highly specific; they will arrive on a particular species of host and no other. Because of this, they may be useful as trace indicators of their carriers even when their carriers are absent. Phoretic mites can be valuable markers of time. They are usually found in a specialised transitional transport or dispersal stage, often moulting and transforming to adults shortly after arrival on a carcase or corpse. Many are characterised by faster development and generation cycles than their carriers. Humans are normally unaware, but we too carry mites; they are skin mites that are present in our clothes. More than 212 phoretic mite species associated with carcases have been reported in the literature. Among these, mites belonging to the Mesostigmata form the dominant group, represented by 127 species with 25 phoretic mite species belonging to the family Parasitidae and 48 to the Macrochelidae. Most of these mesostigmatids are associated with particular species of flies or carrion beetles, though some are associated with small mammals arriving during the early stages of decomposition. During dry decay, members of the Astigmata are more frequently found; 52 species are phoretic on scavengers, and the majority of these travel on late-arriving scavengers such as hide beetles, skin beetles and moths. Several species of carrion beetles can visit a corpse simultaneously, and each may carry 1–10 species of phoretic mites. An informative diversity of phoretic mites may be found on a decaying carcass at any given time. The composition of the phoretic mite assemblage on a carcass might provide valuable information about the conditions of and time elapsed since death.     

Acari in archaeology

Mites and ticks (Acari) have been found in a variety of archaeological situations. Their identification has enabled data on habitat and dietary preferences to be obtained, and these have been used to interpret study sites. Despite this, Acari are not routinely considered in analyses in the way that other environmental components are. Like forensic science, archaeology draws on biological material to rebuild past human activity, and acarology has the potential to provide a much greater amount of evidence to both than is currently the case. As an aid to workers in these fields, an overview is presented of the Acari that have been extracted from archaeological samples, the situations in which they were found and the contribution their presence can make to the interpretation of sites.     

中国蜱螨学研究进展概况

<正> 我国蜱螨学的研究起步较晚,解放前只有一些零星报道,比较系统的研究是从50年代开始。1963年在长春召开了第一届全国蜱螨学术讨论会,至今已有30年。近十几年来,蜱螨学的研究进展较快,中国经济昆虫志中有关蜱     

我国嗜尸性蝇类的鉴别、发育及演替研究现状与分析

嗜尸性蝇类是法医昆虫学调查中最重要的目标,作为早期到达尸体并主要促成尸体组织腐解的昆虫,对死亡时间的推断,特别是腐败尸体死亡时间的推断具有重大意义。本文针对我国嗜尸性蝇类的主要种类及形态识别、各种类生长发育、在尸体上的演替进行了综述。     

Review. When to leave the brood chamber? Routes of dispersal in mites associated with burying beetles

Most nests of brood-caring insects are colonized by a rich community of mite species. Since these nests are ephemeral and scattered in space, phoresy is the principal mode of dispersal in mites specializing on insect nests. Often the mites will arrive on the nest-founding insect, reproduce in the nest and their offspring will disperse on the insect's offspring. A literature review shows that mites reproducing in the underground brood chambers of burying beetles use alternative routes for dispersal. For example, the phoretic instars of Poecilochirus spp. (Mesostigmata: Parasitidae) disperse early by attaching to the parent beetles. Outside the brood chamber, the mites switch host at carcasses and pheromone-emitting male beetles, where juvenile and mature burying beetles of several species congregate. Because they preferably switch to beetles that are reproductively active and use all species of burying beetles within their ranges, they have a good chance of arriving in a new brood chamber. Other mite associates of burying beetles (Alliphis necrophilus and Uropodina) disperse from the brood chamber on the beetle offspring. We suggest that these mites forgo the possible time gain of dispersing early on the parent beetles because their mode of attachment precludes host switching. Their phoretic instars, once attached, have to stay on their host and so only dispersing on the beetle offspring guarantees that they are present on reproducing burying beetles of the next season. The mites associated with burying beetles providean example of multiple solutions to one life history problem – how to find a new brood chamber for reproduction. Mites that have mobile phoretic instars disperse on the parent beetles and try to arrive in the next brood chamber by host switching. They are independent of the generation cycle of a single host and several generations of mites per host generation are possible. Mites that are constrained by their mode of attachment disperse on the beetle offspring and wait until their host becomes mature and reproduces. By doing this they synchronize their generation time with the generation time of their host species. Exp Appl Acarol 22: 621–631 © 1998 Kluwer Academic Publishers     

Forensic entomology: a template for forensic acarology?

Insects are used in a variety of ways in forensic science and the developing area of forensic acarology may have a similar range of potential. This short account summarises the main ways in which entomology currently contributes to forensic science and discusses to what extent acarology might also contribute in these areas.     

Both the anterior and posterior eyes function as photoreceptors for photoperiodic termination of diapause in the two-spotted spider mite

Photoreceptors involved in photoperiodism in insects and mites can be either the retinal photoreceptors in the visual system or nonvisual extraretinal photoreceptors. Mites with no eyes have a clear photoperiodic response, suggesting the involvement of extraretinal photoreceptors in mite photoperiodism. In mites equipped with eyes, however, it is not known whether the retinal or extraretinal photoreceptors are involved in photoperiodism. The two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae possesses two pairs of eyes. Adult females of this species terminate diapause in response to long days. To investigate whether the eyes function as photoperiodic photoreceptors in T. urticae, their eyes were ablated using a laser ablation system. Mites with their eyes intact terminated diapause under long days after low temperature exposure, whereas they remained in diapause under short days. Under constant darkness, they did not terminate diapause. When all eyes were removed, the mites remained in diapause even when they were maintained under long days. In contrast, the mites showed clear photoperiodic response when only the anterior or posterior eyes were removed. These results indicate that both the anterior and posterior eyes function as photoreceptors in photoperiodic termination of diapause in T. urticae.     

Reaching the Ball or Missing the Flight? Collective Dispersal in the Two-Spotted Spider Mite Tetranychus urticae

The two-spotted spider mite is a worldwide phytophagous pest displaying a peculiar dispersal. At high density, when plants are exhausted, individuals gather at the plant apex to form a collective silk-ball. This structure can be dispersed by wind or phoresy. Individuals initiating the ball are enclosed in the centre and have a high risk to die. For the first time, the ultimate and proximate mechanisms leading to this group dispersal are examined. To explore if a particular mite genotype was involved in the ball formation, plants were infested with individuals of different genetic background. After the silk-ball formation, the mites in the ball and those remaining on the plant were collected and genotyped. The balls were harvested after 4h and 24h to determine the role of timing between the formation and dispersal on the mortality of mites. Mites do not segregate according to their degree of relatedness, stage, or sex. Mites parallel humans using public transportation: they climb up in the ball whatever their genetic background. Silk-balls composed of unrelated individuals may help avoiding inbreeding when colonizing a new plant. Our results also emphasize the importance of an adequate timing for efficient dispersal between the time spent between ball formation and dispersal.     

Differentiation of mite species by using cellulose acetate and equilibrium polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of isoenzymes

The isoenzymes of various species of medically and economically important mites were studied using cellulose acetate and equilibrium polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Interspecific differences in isoenzymes were found, which were species-specific. Intraspecific differences in isoenzymes were also found when individual mites were examined. The efficiency of each technique, and their use in various fields of acarology, are discussed. In addition, possible phylogenetic relationships as revealed by these techniques are suggested.     

DNA标记技术在螨类系统学研究中的应用

长期以来,螨类主要依靠其形态特征进行系统学研究。DNA标记是指能反映生物个体或物种间基因组中某种差异特征的DNA片段。近年来,DNA标记技术在螨类系统学研究中得到越来越广泛的应用。本文综述了随机扩增多态性RAPD、限制性内切酶片段长度多态性RFLP、微卫星SSR、核酸序列扩增、扩增片段长度多态性AFLP和直接扩增片段长度多态性DALP等6种DNA标记技术在螨类系统学研究中的应用现状及前景。     

Are some mites more ecologically exposed to pollution with lead than others?

Siepel, H. 1995, Are some mites more ecologically exposed to pollution with lead than others? Exp. Appl. Acerol. 19: 000-000. The hypothesis that soil mites capable of digesting fungal cell-walls by chitinase activity in their guts are more exposed to heavy-metal pollution, for instance lead, than other fungivorous soil mites was tested. Heavy metals accumulated in fungi are located in particular in the cell wall. Mites piercing the fungi and digesting the contents will not raise their body burden of metals significantly. Mites ingesting fungal material but unable to digest fungal cell walls (fungivorous browsers), may have a somewhat higher exposure to heavy-metal pollution. However, mites ingesting fungal hyphae and digesting all the cell walls (fungivorous grazers) will encounter the most pronounced effects. A test of this hypothesis in an industrial site predominantly contaminated with lead showed an almost complete absence of the most vulnerable group: the fungivorous grazers. A second test in a clay pigeon shooting range showed an inverse relationship between the density of fungivorous grazers and the amount of lead in the soil. Fungivorous grazers at that site also appeared to have a much higher body burden of lead than other mites. Finally in laboratory experiments, it is shown that fungivorous grazers accumulate lead faster than fungivorous browsers.     

The ecology, morphology and behaviour of Bakerdania elliptica (Acari: Prostigmata: Pygmephoridae), a mite associated with terrestrial isopods

In deciduous woodlands near to Bristol, South-west England, about one in ten specimens of the woodlouse Oniscus asellus (L.) are infested with Bakerdania elliptica (Krczal, 1959), a small pygmephorid mite of about 200 pm in length. Woodlice in the field rarely carry more than three mites, which are usually attached to the mid or lateral regions of the sixth and seventh pereonites on the ventral surface of the isopod. These 'favoured sites' correspond to regions of the exoskeleton of the woodlouse which are free from abrasion as they move through leaf litter. Mites removed from these areas and replaced on the first pereonite return to a favoured site, usually within 30 min. During this process they exhibit four distinct types of behaviour.]
Uninfested specimens of Oniscus usellus maintained in laboratory tanks on leaf litter from their 'own' site all become infested with mites within a week. The number of mites on the isopods increases rapidly under these conditions. After six weeks, each individual carries a mean of about 50 mites. The level of infestation is subsequently stable, probably due to saturation of favoured sites, since large numbers of unattached mites can be found in the leaf litter during this period.
Studies by light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy have shown that Bakerdania elliptica does not feed while attached to the cuticle of Oniscus asellus , and that all attached mites are females. Males are extremely rare and occur only in leaf litter. These observations suggest that the relationship between Bakerdania elliptica and Oniscus asellus is one of phoresy and that female mites use woodlice as an aid to dispersal during their life cycle.     

Tick genomics: the Ixodes genome project and beyond

Ticks and mites (subphylum Chelicerata; subclass Acari) include important pests of animals and plants worldwide. The Ixodes scapularis (black-legged tick) genome sequencing project marks the beginning of the genomics era for the field of acarology. This project is the first to sequence the genome of a blood-feeding tick vector of human disease and a member of the subphylum Chelicerata. Genome projects for other species of Acari are forthcoming and their genome sequences will likely feature significantly in the future of tick research. Parasitologists interested in advancing the field of tick genomics research will be faced with specific challenges. The development of genetic tools and resources, and the size and repetitive nature of tick genomes are important considerations. Innovative approaches may be required to sequence, assemble, annotate and analyse tick genomes. Overcoming these challenges will enable scientists to investigate the genes and genome organisation of this important group of arthropods and may ultimately lead to new solutions for control of ticks and tick-borne diseases.     

Parasite preferences for large host body size can drive overdispersion in a fly-mite association

Body size generally correlates intraspecifically with insect fitness but can also correlate with parasite abundance (number of parasites). Host preferences by parasites, and variation in host immunity, could contribute to this trend. We investigated the effect of host size on mite-fly interactions (Macrocheles subbadius and Drosophila nigrospiracula). Mites strongly preferred to infect larger flies in pair-wise choices, and larger flies were more likely to be infected and acquired more mites in infection microcosms. Preferences of parasites resulted in size-biased infection outcomes. We discuss the implications of this heterogeneity in infection on parasite overdispersion and fly populations.     

Mites as Selective Fungal Carriers in Stored Grain Habitats

Mites are well documented as vectors of micromycetes in stored products. Since their vectoring capacity is low due to their small size, they can be serious vectors only where there is selective transfer of a high load of specific fungal species. Therefore the aim of our work was to find out whether the transfer of fungi is selective. Four kinds of stored seeds (wheat, poppy, lettuce, mustard) infested by storage mites were subjected to mycological analysis. We compared the spectrum of micromycete species isolated from different species of mites (Acarus siro, Lepidoglyphus destructor, Tyrophagus putrescentiae, Caloglyphus rhizoglyphoides and Cheyletus malaccensis) and various kinds of stored seeds. Fungi were separately isolated from (a) the surface of mites, (b) the mites' digestive tract (= faeces), and (c) stored seeds and were then cultivated and determined. The fungal transport via mites is selective. This conclusion is supported by (i) lower numbers of isolated fungal species from mites than from seeds; (ii) lower Shannon–Weaver diversity index in the fungal communities isolated from mites than from seeds; (iii) significant effect of mites/seeds as environmental variables on fungal presence in a redundancy analysis (RDA); (iv) differences in composition of isolated fungi between mite species shown by RDA. The results of our work support the hypothesis that mite–fungal interactions are dependent on mite species. The fungi attractive to mites seem to be dispersed more than others. The selectivity of fungal transport via mites enhances their pest importance.     

The marine mites Hyadesia sp. and Copidognathus sp. Associated with the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis

Two species of marine mites belonging to the families Hyadesiidae and Halacaridae, Hyadesia sp. and Copidognathus sp., respectively, were found associated with the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis from Baja California in NW México. The first species was found inside the mussel gut with an intensity ranging from one to six mites per mussel and their prevalence was from 20.0 to 46.7%; this species was also found living free in the sediment at a density of 0.7 mite/100 ml. The second species was found on the mantle and gills of the host with an intensity ranging from one to three mites per host and their prevalence was from 3.3 to 6.7%; this species was abundant (4.5 mites/100 ml) and living free in the sediment around mussel clumps. Hyadesia sp. was found alive and attached in the gut of the mussel. A histological analysis revealed this species in the lumen of intestine surrounded by mucus and attached to the epithelial cells of the intestine, where some disorder of epithelial cells was associated. Moreover, this mite may be encapsulated by hemocytes inside the digestive diverticulum, the reproductive follicle, or the connective tissue surrounding the diverticulum. No damages to branches or gills resulting from the presence of Copidognathus sp. were observed. The results suggest that these mites are occasional invaders of mussels; however, as a result of this infestation, Hyadesia sp. may produce damage in the host's tissues. This is the first record of marine mites inside the gut, reproductive follicles, branches, and mantle of a marine bivalve.     

Occurrence of Poecilochirus austroasiaticus (Acari: Parasitidae) in forensic autopsies and its application on postmortem interval estimation

Despite the fact that mites were used at the dawn of forensic entomology to elucidate the postmortem interval, their use in current cases remains quite low for procedural reasons such as inadequate taxonomic knowledge. A special interest is focused on the phoretic stages of some mite species, because the phoront-host specificity allows us to deduce in many occasions the presence of the carrier (usually Diptera or Coleoptera) although it has not been seen in the sampling performed in situ or in the autopsy room. In this article, we describe two cases where Poecilochirus austroasiaticus Vitzthum (Acari: Parasitidae) was sampled in the autopsy room. In the first case, we could sample the host, Thanatophilus ruficornis (Küster) (Coleoptera: Silphidae), which was still carrying phoretic stages of the mite on the body. That attachment allowed, by observing starvation/feeding periods as a function of the digestive tract filling, the establishment of chronological cycles of phoretic behavior, showing maximum peaks of phoronts during arrival and departure from the corpse and the lowest values in the phase of host feeding. From the sarcosaprophagous fauna, we were able to determine in this case a minimum postmortem interval of 10 days. In the second case, we found no Silphidae at the place where the corpse was found or at the autopsy, but a postmortem interval of 13 days could be established by the high specificity of this interspecific relationship and the departure from the corpse of this family of Coleoptera.     

Diptera of forensic importance in the Iberian Peninsula: larval identification key

A revision of the species and families of sarcosaprophagous flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae, Muscidae, Fanniidae, Drosophilidae, Phoridae, Piophilidae and Stratiomyidae) suitable for forensic purposes in the Iberian Peninsula is presented. Morphological characteristics that allow the accurate identification of third instars of the species present in the Iberian Peninsula are described and presented in the form of a diagnostic key. For larval Calliphoridae, characteristics such as the spines of the body segments were useful for the genus Calliphora whereas features of the anal segment and the cephalopharyngeal skeleton were useful for larvae of Lucilia. Identification of three Chrysominae species present in the Iberian Peninsula is included. For larval Sarcophagidae, characters such as the arrangement and shape of spiracular openings, structures of the anal segment and the cephalopharyngeal skeleton were used for the first time. A new record of Sarcophaga cultellata Pandellé, from a human corpse, is also included as well as recent incursions into the European cadaveric entomofauna such as Synthesiomyia nudiseta (van der Wulp) and Hermetia illucens (Linnaeus). This work provides useful new information that could be applied to forensic investigations in the Iberian Peninsula and in southern Europe.