Compensatory dietary selection occurs in larval Locusta migratoria but not Spodoptera littoralis after a single deficient meal during ad libitum feeding

ABSTRACT Final instar nymphs of Locusta migratoria (L.) and larvae of Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval) were given an artificial diet deficient in either protein or digestible carbohydrate for a single meal during ad libitum feeding, after which they were provided with a choice of two diets, one containing protein but no digestible carbohydrate and the other containing carbohydrate but no protein. Detailed analyses of feeding behaviour showed that locusts exhibited a degree of compensatory dietary selection following the single deficient meal. No such response was evident for the caterpillars, although previous work (Simpson et al. , 1988) has demonstrated that compensatory selection behaviour is marked in this species after periods of 4 h or more on the same deficient diets. These results show that locusts are able to respond extremely rapidly to the nutritional quality of their food by utilizing nutritional feedbacks. This capability may have important implications for the study of foraging strategies in other herbivorous insects.     

Haemolymph amino acid and sugar levels in locusts fed nutritionally unbalanced diets

Aspects of pre- and post-ingestive compensation were investigated in locusts (Locusta migratoria) fed nutritionally unbalanced artificial diets containing 7% protein and 21% digestible carbohydrate (7:21) or 21% protein and 7% digestible carbohydrate (21:7). Feeding behaviour and haemolymph levels of amino acids and sugars were measured in locusts fed ad libitum on these diets. Locusts fed the high-protein diet had chronically elevated haemolymph levels of 15 out of 19 amino acids measured compared to locusts fed the low protein diet. However, haemolymph levels of lysine, alanine, aspartic acid and glutamic acid did not differ between diets, suggesting some specific regulatory mechanism for these amino acids. Haemolymph glucose and trehalose reflected levels of carbohydrate in the diets, being high in insects fed diet 7:21 relative to those given diet 21:7. These data are discussed in relation to the physiological and behavioural bases of nutritional homeostasis.Abbreviations AA amino acid(s) - PRO protein - CHO carbohydrate - PBS phosphate-buffered saline - MW molecular weight     

Dietary self‐selection and rules of compromise by fifth‐instar Vanessa cardui

We examined dietary self‐selection and rules of compromise for protein (P) and digestible carbohydrate (C) intake by fifth‐instar Vanessa cardui L. (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Nymphalini). We presented six fat‐free diet pairs to larvae in a choice trial to determine the ‘intake target’. In addition, we fed larvae seven fat‐free single diets differing in dietary nutrient ratio in no‐choice trials to determine the rules of compromise they exhibit when constrained to a singular, sub‐optimal dietary source. In choice trials, caterpillars regulated nutrient intake to a ratio of 1 protein to 1.09 carbohydrate (1P:1.09C), exhibiting tighter regulation of protein than of carbohydrate. Furthermore, larvae from different diet pair treatments did not differ in pupal mass or stadium duration. In no‐choice experiments, larvae reduced consumption on increasingly protein‐biased diets and increased consumption on increasingly carbohydrate‐biased diets, relative to a 1P:1C ratio diet. Differences in carbohydrate consumption were much greater between no‐choice treatments than differences in protein consumption. Dietary nutrient ratio affected pupal mass when accounting for initial larval mass. Pupal mass decreased as nutrient ratio was shifted off of 1P:1C, but to a greater extent when the ratio was skewed toward carbohydrate. Stadium duration increased as nutrient ratio diverged from 1P:1C, being more pronounced when shifted toward carbohydrate than toward protein. Regulation to near 1P:1C is consistent with results found for other Lepidoptera, and the rule of compromise exhibited by V. cardui is consistent with that expected for a generalist herbivore.     

Compensation by locusts for changes in dietary nutrients: behavioural mechanisms

ABSTRACT. The detailed behavioural mechanisms underlying an instance of compensation for changes in dietary nutrients are described for the first time in an insect. Nymphs of Locusta migratoria L. were given one of four artificial diets on the third day of the fifth instar, and their feeding patterns recorded in detail for 12 h. The diets represented combinations of two protein and two digestible carbohydrate levels (28% and 14% dry weight) presented in an otherwise complete nutrient mix. At the nutrient levels used, locusts regulated their intake of food with respect to protein but not digestible carbohydrate in the diet. They ate more of the lower protein diets by eating the same sized meals more frequently than insects fed on the higher protein diets. Compensation was not complete over the 12 h observation period: insects on the lower-protein diets ingested and absorbed 72% as much nitrogen as those insects fed on the higher-protein diets. Possible physiological mechanisms underlying the behavioural mechanisms are discussed.     

Locusts increase carbohydrate consumption to protect against a fungal biopesticide

There is growing evidence to suggest that hosts can alter their dietary intake to recoup the specific resources involved in mounting effective resistance against parasites and pathogens. We examined macronutrient ingestion and disease-resistance in the Australian plague locust (Chortoicetes terminifera), challenged with a fungal pathogen (Metarhizium acridum) under dietary regimes varying in their relative amounts of protein and digestible carbohydrate. Dietary protein influenced constitutive immune function to a greater extent than did carbohydrate, indicating higher protein costs of mounting an immune defence than carbohydrate or overall energy costs. However, it appears that increased immune function, as a result of greater protein ingestion, was not sufficient to protect locusts from fungal disease. We found that locusts restricted to diets high in protein (P) and low in carbohydrate (C) were more likely to die of a fungal infection than those restricted to diets with a low P:C ratio. We hypothesise that the fungus is more efficient at exploiting protein in the insect’s haemolymph than the host is at producing immune effectors, tipping the balance in favour of the pathogen on high-protein diets. When allowed free-choice, survivors of a fungus-challenge chose a less-protein-rich diet than those succumbing to infection and those not challenged with fungus locusts. These results are contrary to previous studies on caterpillars in the genus Spodoptera challenged with bacterial and baculoviral pathogens, indicating that nutrient ingestion and pathogen resistance may be a complex interaction specific to different host species and disease agents.     

Feeding behaviour and nutrient selection in an insect <Emphasis Type="Italic">Manduca sexta</Emphasis> L. and alterations induced by parasitism

Manduca sexta L. larvae exhibit broad food acceptance with regard to nutrient content during the first 3 days of the last stadium. Larvae fed diets with a constant combined level of casein and sucrose, but variable ratios, display a linear relationship between protein and carbohydrate intake. Larvae grow best on a diet with equal nutrients, but will consume an excess of one nutrient in order to obtain an adequate amount of the other, as nutrient ratio shifts. Parasitized larvae feed similarly, but the nutrient ratio does not affect growth. Unparasitized larvae regulate intake of protein and carbohydrate when offered choices of protein-biased and carbohydrate-biased diets having combined nutrient levels of 120 g/l, but with variable ratios. Larvae normally consume equal amounts of nutrients, regardless of ratio, and grow similarly. As combined nutrient level is reduced in one diet, larvae abandon regulation and feed randomly. Parasitized larvae offered choice diets with 120 g/l combined nutrients do not regulate nutrient intake. Consumption of nutrients varies widely, but growth is unaffected. Larvae offered choices of diets having equal amounts of casein and sucrose but variable fat (corn oil), fail to regulate fat intake, although both unparasitized and parasitized larvae prefer a diet containing higher fat.     

Diet Balancing in the Cockroach Rhyparobia madera: Does Serotonin Regulate this Behavior?

Animals, including insects, have the ability to self-select an optimal diet from a choice of two or more incomplete diets that lack an essential nutrient. This paper demonstrates that nymphs of the cockroach Rhyparobia madera also have this ability. The nymphs chose a protein:carbohydrate (P:C) ratio of approximately 25:75 when faced with a choice between one cube of protein (casein) and another of carbohydrate (sucrose). This self-selected ratio was shown to promote growth as well or better than other diets tested. When given a wide range of P:C choices, the R. madera nymphs consistently selected a P:C ratio of approximately 25:75, suggesting that they have the ability to diet-balance. Finally, injections of various serotonergic drugs into self-selecting nymphs influenced their choice of diets. Serotonin promoted a decrease in carbohydrate feeding, while injection of the antagonist -methyltryptophan caused the nymphs to overfeed on carbohydrate. The results suggest that serotonin may help alter the carbohydrate feeding response in cockroaches.     

Effects of diet on development of Podisus nigrispinus (Dallas) (Het., Pentatomidae), a predator of the cotton leafworm

Abstract:  The effects of diet on development of Podisus nigrispinus (Dallas) (Het., Pentatomidae) were studied at 25°C, relative humidity of 60 ± 10%, and photoperiod of 14 h light : 10 h dark. Development times of P. nigrispinus nymphs were similar when fed with third or fifth instar larvae of cotton leafworm ( Alabama argillacea Hübner) (Lep., Noctuidae) or Tenebrio molitor L. (Col., Tenebrionidae). When fed with housefly larvae ( Musca domestica L.) (Dipt., Muscidae) or artificial diet, the predator had a longer development time. Independent of diet, instar or sex, the females of P. nigrispinus showed a longer longevity than the males. The total survival of the nymphal stage, on the different diets, varied from 22.46 (fed with housefly) to 77.33% (fed with T. molitor larvae). P. nigrispinus males were heavier when fed with third or fifth instar cotton leafworm larvae than when fed with artificial diet. The weight of the females varied from 37.91 (with artificial diet) to 64.68 mg (with fifth instar cotton leafworm larvae). Independently of the diet, newly emerged females of P. nigrispinus were heavier than the males. Females of P. nigrispinus which were fed with fifth instar cotton leafworm larvae had heavier ovaries than those fed other diets.     

Mormon crickets maximize nutrient intake at the expense of immunity

Carbohydrates and protein comprise two of the major macronutrients and many animals regulate their dietary intake of both. In the field, the carbohydrate (C) to protein (P) intake of Mormon crickets Anabrus simplex Haldeman (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) is indicative of a nutritional imbalance affecting both migration and immunity. In the present study, dietary choice experiments in the laboratory are used to investigate the preferences of Mormon cricket nymphs and adults for C and P. Diets of differing C : P ratios and amounts are presented in pairs to permit Mormon crickets to reach an intake target of C : P from four unique starting points. After the last pair of diets is removed, phenoloxidase (PO) and anti‐bacterial activity are assayed. Both males and females at the adult and nymphal stages show a strong preference for the diet richest in macronutrients, with an equal preference for C or P. When given a choice between a high C diet or a high P diet, Mormon crickets select both at random, balancing their daily intake of C and P. Weight gain is dependent on the mass of P consumed, with a conversion factor greater than four times that of C consumed. As predicted, Mormon cricket nymphs and adults that consume more P have higher titres of total phenoloxidase and, in addition, lysozyme‐like anti‐bacterial activity is independent of dietary treatment. In nature, omnivores might consume an excess of one macronutrient because they often find the other through active searching of their local habitat. However, environmental change and interspecific or intraspecific competition can challenge the ability of an organism to encounter the required nutrients on a local scale, contributing to long‐distance migratory behaviours.     

The effect of pre-fasting diet and water temperature on liver glycogen and liver weight in rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri Richardson, during fasting

The effect of feeding an isocaloric and isonitrogenous trout diet that contained different levels of digestible carbohydrate (cerelose) to rainbow trout at either 10 or 15° C on liver glycogen and liver weight was determined in two fasting studies of 12 and 41 days duration. Trout fed diets with increased levels of digestible carbohydrate (HC) had significantly higher liver-body weight ratios (LW) and liver glycogen (LG) than trout reared on low digestible carbohydrate diets (HF). Both LW and LG declined in fasting trout previously fed HC diets but declined little in fasting trout previously fed HF diets. Trout reared at 10° C had higher LW and LG than trout reared at 15° C on either the HC or HF diets. During fasting, the trout reared on HC diets at 10° C required a longer period of time for the LG and LW to decline to the levels of trout reared on the low carbohydrate diets, than did trout reared on the HC diets at 15° C. The results indicate that both pre-fasting diet and water temperature can affect liver glycogen utilization and liver weight in fasting trout. Prolonged elevation of LW and LG in fasting trout could jeopardize the survival rate of stocked trout, particularly at low water temperatures.     

Does dietary P affect feeding and performance in the mixed-feeding grasshopper (Acrididae) Melanoplus bivitattus?

Although consequences of limited dietary protein and carbohydrate to performance are well studied for terrestrial insect herbivores, the importance of phosphorus (P) remains poorly understood. We examined the significance of dietary P to performance in fifth-instar nymphs of the grasshopper Melanoplus bivittatus fed artificial diets. Consumption, digestion, developmental rate, and growth in response to different levels of P nested within standard-Protein and carbohydrate diets were determined. Developmental rate was slowest on high-P diets; protein:carbohydrate concentration and P in diets affected frass production and consumption. Approximate digestibility and conversion of digested food were primarily influenced by the protein:carbohydrate quality of the diet but not P. Mass gain was marginally lower in the low-Protein:high carbohydrate diet used in this study. At the individual level, other than small effects to developmental rate at high concentrations for M. bivittatus, dietary P otherwise seems to have little effect on nymphal performance. To the degree that it is important, effects of dietary P depend on the concentrations of protein and carbohydrate in the diet.     

Nicotine moderates the effects of macronutrient balance on nutrient intake by parasitized <Emphasis Type="Italic">Manduca sexta</Emphasis> L

Effects of dietary nicotine and macronutrient ratio on M. sexta larvae were examined. Larvae were fed a carbohydrate-biased, protein-biased or diet having equal amounts of casein and sucrose, with and without nicotine. Without nicotine, larvae displayed compensatory feeding on the low protein diet, but despite consuming more, grew least on this diet. Nicotine at 0.5% had no effect on nutrient consumption. Nicotine at 1.0 and 2.0% reduced overall consumption and thereby also reduced nicotine consumption. Larvae parasitized by C congregata displayed reduced nutrient intake and growth on all diets. Parasitized larvae responded to 1% nicotine similarly to unparasitized larvae. At 0.5% nicotine, they displayed reduced consumption on all diets, possibly due to altered chemoreceptor sensitivity to nicotine. When offered a choice of two diets having different macronutrient ratios, one with and the other without 0.1% nicotine, all larvae preferred the diet lacking nicotine and failed to regulate nutrient intake such that the nutrient intake target, a ratio of nutrients supporting optimal growth, was achieved. Parasitized larvae consumed less nicotine on a fresh weight basis than unparasitized insects, suggesting that the feeding response of parasitized larvae to nicotine minimizes the exposure of nicotine to developing parasites.     

Parasitism of an insect Manduca sexta L. alters feeding behaviour and nutrient utilization to influence developmental success of a parasitoid

The effects of macronutrient balance on nutrient intake and utilization were examined in Manduca sexta larvae parasitized by Cotesia congregata. Insects fed an artificial diet having constant total macronutrient, but with varied ratios of protein and carbohydrate, with altered diet consumption in response to excesses and deficiencies of the individual macronutrients. Bivariate plots of protein and carbohydrate consumption for non-parasitized larvae demonstrated a curvilinear relationship between points of nutrient intake for the various diets, and the larvae grew best on carbohydrate-biased diets. The relationship was linear for parasitized larvae with the growth uniform across diets. On protein-biased diets, the larvae regulated the nitrogen content, containing similar amounts of nitrogen regardless of consumption. Efficiency of nitrogen conversion in non-parasitized larvae was greatest on carbohydrate-biased diets, while nitrogen conversion by parasitized larvae was greatest with intermediate nutrient ratios. Accounting for carbohydrate consumption, the lipid content decreased as dietary carbohydrate increased, but parasitized larvae contained significantly less lipid. The total biomass of parasites developing in individual host larvae was positively correlated with host protein consumption, but the individual parasites were similar in size. Parasitism influences host nutrient consumption in a manner that achieves uniform host growth under diverse nutritional regimes, thereby constraining blood nutrient concentrations within limits suitable for parasite growth and development.     

The regulation of growth by locusts through post-ingestive compensation for variation in the levels of dietary protein and carbohydrate

Summary Post-ingestive responses to four different diets containing protein and digestible carbohydrate in balanced (7% protein, 7% digestible carbohydrate or 21% protein, 21% digestible carbohydrate) or unbalanced proportions (7% protein, 21% digestible carbohydrate or 21% protein, 7% digestible carbohydrate) were assessed in fifth stadium Locusta migratoria. Amounts eaten, defaecated and grown were measured across the fifth stadium. Results showed that locusts differentially utilized ingested protein and carbohydrate and consequently achieved similar growth on all four diets despite having ingested very different amounts of protein and carbohydrate. Nutrients in excess of requirements were voided from the animal mainly after digestion and absorption from the gut. In the case of excess nitrogen, a major route for removal was through increased uric acid excretion, while for carbohydrate the major removal mechanism was apparently via respiration.     

The glucogenic response of a parasitized insect Manduca sexta L. is partially mediated by differential nutrient intake

Induction of gluconeogenesis is accelerated in larvae of the insect Manduca sexta L. parasitized by Cotesia congregata (Say), maintaining the concentration of the blood sugar trehalose, an important nutrient for parasite development. Investigation has demonstrated that when host larvae are offered a choice of diets with varying levels of sucrose and casein, parasitized insects consume a different balance of these nutrients, principally due to a decrease in protein consumption. The result is metabolic homeostasis, with normal unparasitized and parasitized larvae exhibiting similar levels of gluconeogenesis and blood sugar level. In the present study, normal unparasitized and parasitized larvae were maintained on individual chemically defined diets having the balance of protein and carbohydrate consumed by each when offered a dietary choice. Total dietary nutrient, the sum of carbohydrate and protein, was provided at six levels, composed of three pairs of diets. Each diet pair consisting of diets having equivalent overall nutrient ratios of 2:1 and 1:1 casein/sucrose. Host growth and diet consumption were significantly affected by dietary nutrient level and the magnitude of these effects was influenced by parasitism. Due to the effects of dietary nutrient level on diet consumption, none of the unparasitized and parasitized larvae within any of the three diet pairs consumed protein and carbohydrate at the levels predicted by the earlier choice experiments. Among insects on all of the diets, however, two groups of unparasitized and parasitized larvae consumed the expected levels of protein and carbohydrate. In each case, gluconeogenesis, as measured by 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) analysis of pyruvate cycling and trehalose synthesis from [2-13C]pyruvate, was evident in unparasitized and parasitized insects, confirming the conclusions of the earlier experiments. Generally, all larvae that consumed less than approximately 250 mg of sucrose over the 3-day feeding period, were gluconeogenic, regardless of diet. Differential carbohydrate consumption, therefore, was an important factor in inducing gluconeogenesis in both unparasitized and parasitized insects. The selective 13C enrichment in trehalose displayed by non-gluconeogenic larvae on some diets demonstrated trehalose formation from [2]pyruvate. The absence of net carbohydrate synthesis in these insects was likely due to an elevation of glycolysis. There was no significant effect of diet consumption or parasitism on blood trehalose level. Parasitized larvae displayed higher levels of gluconeogenesis than did unparasitized insects, a finding consistent with the conclusion that blood sugar is rapidly sequestered by developing parasites. The parasite burden, the total number of parasites developing within host larvae, as well as the number of parasites emerging from host larvae to complete development, was significantly less at the lowest dietary nutrient level, but was otherwise similar at all dietary nutrient levels. Moreover, the number of parasites that emerged increased with increasing diet consumption as reflected by host final weight.     

Dietary choice for a balanced nutrient intake increases the mean and reduces the variance in the reproductive performance of male and female cockroaches

Sexual selection may cause dietary requirements for reproduction to diverge across the sexes and promote the evolution of different foraging strategies in males and females. However, our understanding of how the sexes regulate their nutrition and the effects that this has on sex‐specific fitness is limited. We quantified how protein (P) and carbohydrate (C) intakes affect reproductive traits in male (pheromone expression) and female (clutch size and gestation time) cockroaches (Nauphoeta cinerea). We then determined how the sexes regulate their intake of nutrients when restricted to a single diet and when given dietary choice and how this affected expression of these important reproductive traits. Pheromone levels that improve male attractiveness, female clutch size and gestation time all peaked at a high daily intake of P:C in a 1:8 ratio. This is surprising because female insects typically require more P than males to maximize reproduction. The relatively low P requirement of females may reflect the action of cockroach endosymbionts that help recycle stored nitrogen for protein synthesis. When constrained to a single diet, both sexes prioritized regulating their daily intake of P over C, although this prioritization was stronger in females than males. When given the choice between diets, both sexes actively regulated their intake of nutrients at a 1:4.8 P:C ratio. The P:C ratio did not overlap exactly with the intake of nutrients that optimized reproductive trait expression. Despite this, cockroaches of both sexes that were given dietary choice generally improved the mean and reduced the variance in all reproductive traits we measured relative to animals fed a single diet from the diet choice pair. This pattern was not as strong when compared to the single best diet in our geometric array, suggesting that the relationship between nutrient balancing and reproduction is complex in this species.     

Protein-leverage in mice: the geometry of macronutrient balancing and consequences for fat deposition

Objective: The Protein‐Leverage Hypothesis proposes that humans regulate their intake of macronutrients and that protein intake is prioritized over fat and carbohydrate intake, causing excess energy ingestion when diets contain low %protein. Here we test in a model animal, the mouse: (i) the extent to which intakes of protein and carbohydrate are regulated; (ii) if protein intake has priority over carbohydrates so that unbalanced foods low in %protein leads to increased energy intake; and (iii) how such variations in energy intake are converted into growth and storage. Methods and Procedures: We fed mice one of five isocaloric foods having different protein to carbohydrate composition, or a combination of two of these foods (N = 15). Nutrient intake and corresponding growth in lean body mass and lipid mass were measured. Data were analyzed using a geometric approach for analyzing intake of multiple nutrients. Results: (i) Mice fed different combinations of complementary foods regulated their intake of protein and carbohydrate toward a relatively well‐defined intake target. (ii) When mice were offered diets with fixed protein to carbohydrate ratio, they regulated the intake of protein more strongly than carbohydrate. This protein‐leverage resulted in higher energy consumption when diets had lower %protein and led to increased lipid storage in mice fed the diet containing the lowest %protein. Discussion: Although the protein‐leverage in mice was less than what has been proposed for humans, energy intakes were clearly higher on diets containing low %protein. This result indicates that tight protein regulation can be responsible for excess energy ingestion and higher fat deposition when the diet contains low %protein.     

取食含不同植物源成分的饲料对香樟齿喙象幼虫生长发育及体内解毒酶活性的影响

【目的】明确取食含不同植物源成分的饲料对香樟齿喙象Pagiophloeus tsushimanus幼虫生长发育以及体内解毒酶活性的影响,以探究寄主植物对香樟齿喙象食性与抗性的作用。【方法】以3种樟科植物(香樟Cinnamomum camphora和浙江桂Cinnamomum chekiangensis和浙江楠Phoebe chekiangensis)枝条粉末为植物源成分,配制成半人工饲料。以半人工饲料进行室内饲养后,分别测定取食半人工饲料后香樟齿喙象幼虫的发育历期、体重、死亡率和化蛹率,以及饥饿12 h后取食含不同植物源成分的半人工饲料的4龄幼虫体内解毒酶(谷胱甘肽-S-转移酶、羧酸酯酶和乙酰胆碱酯酶)活性时序变化。【结果】香樟齿喙象幼虫的发育历期在取食含不同植物源成分的半人工饲料之间存在显著差异。取食含香樟成分的半人工饲料的幼虫发育历期最短(100.13 d),取食含浙江楠成分的半人工饲料的幼虫发育历期最长 (123.33 d);整个幼虫期的死亡率以取食含浙江桂成分的半人工饲料的幼虫最高(41.67%),以取食含香樟成分的半人工饲料的幼虫最低(10.00%);化蛹率以取食含香樟成分的半人工饲料的最高(87.32%);取食含香樟成分的半人工饲料的幼虫体重增长速率也明显高于取食含浙江桂或浙江楠成分的半人工饲料的幼虫。饥饿12 h后取食含不同植物源成分的半人工饲料的香樟齿喙象4龄幼虫体内GST和 AChE活性并无显著差异(P＞0.05);而取食含香樟成分的半人工饲料的幼虫CarE活性在60 h时大幅度上升。【结论】说明香樟齿喙象对天然寄主香樟具有较强的生理适应性,这可能与其专食性密切相关;同时,也表明香樟齿喙象可以通过调节自身生长发育和解毒代谢功能来适应不同寄主植物。     

Nutrient balance in medfly, Ceratitis capitata, larval diets affects the ability of the developing insect to incorporate lipid and protein reserves

The Mediterranean fruit fly [Ceratitis capitata Wiedemann (Diptera: Tephritidae)], or medfly, is mass produced in many facilities throughout the world to supply sterile flies for sterile insect technique programs. Production of sterile males requires large amounts of larval and adult diets. Larval diets comprise the largest economic burdens in the mass production of sterile flies, and are one of the main areas where production costs could be reduced without affecting quality and efficacy. The present study investigated the effect of manipulating diet constituents on larval development and performance. Medfly larvae were reared on diets differing in the proportions of brewer's yeast and sucrose. We studied the effect of such diets on the ability of pupating larvae to accumulate protein and lipids, and on other developmental indicators. Except for diets with a very low proportion of brewer's yeast (e.g., 4%), pupation and adult emergence rates were in general high and satisfactory. The ability of pupating larvae to accumulate lipid reserves and proteins was significantly affected by the sucrose and yeast in the diet, and by the proportion of protein to carbohydrates (P/C). In contrast to previous nutritional studies conducted with other insects, low P/C in medfly larval diets (with excess dietary carbohydrates) resulted in pupating medfly larvae having a relatively reduced load of lipids; medfly larvae protein contents in these diets were, as expected, relatively low. Similarly, high P/C ratios in the diet produced larvae with high protein and lipid contents. Differences with other insects may be due to differential post‐ingestion regulation where a high dietary carbohydrate diet reduces the lipogenic activity of the larvae, and induces a shift from lipid to glucose oxidation. Larvae reared on low P/C diets spent more time foraging in the diet than larvae maintained on a high P/C diet, suggesting a compensatory mechanism to complement nutrient intake. The results suggest that the content of brewer's yeast, the most expensive diet component, could be fine‐tuned without apparently affecting fly quality.     

Larval nutrition affects lipid storage and growth, but not protein or carbohydrate storage in newly eclosed adults of the grasshopper Schistocerca americana

Nitrogen availability from dietary protein can have profound effects on the physiology and evolutionary ecology of insect herbivores. While many studies consider the effects of nutrition on consumption and gross body composition of protein and other important nutrients, few consider partitioning to storage for future use. I used chemically defined artificial diets to quantitatively manipulate the amount of dietary carbohydrates and proteins available to growing larvae of the grasshopper Schistocerca americana to determine how larval nutrient availability affects growth and all three classes of stored nutrients (proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates) carried over from larval feeding into adulthood. Larvae on poor diets increased consumption, but could not compensate for diet quality, eclosing small and containing no significant nutrient stores at adulthood. Individuals fed intermediate to high nutrient content diets as larvae were significantly larger and contained a significantly greater proportion of lipid stores at adult eclosion, but not protein or carbohydrate stores than individuals fed low nutrient content diets. This suggests that larvally derived lipid stores may be more important to adult fitness than carbohydrate or protein stores. This result is contrary to previous studies performed on the role of larval nutrition and allocation to protein stores, and this difference is likely due to variation in the relative availability of protein in adult diets across species.