Effects of transforming growth factor-beta 1 and fibronectin on SPARC expression in cultures of human periodontal ligament cells

Transforming growth factor-beta(1) (TGF-beta(1)) increases synthesis of secreted protein, acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC), as well as fibronectin (FN) and type I collagen. However, little is known about the regulatory mechanism of SPARC expression. We examined the effect of FN on SPARC expression by TGF-beta(1) in cultures of human periodontal ligament cells (HPL cells). TGF-beta(1) increased the SPARC and SPARC mRNA levels in HPL cells. Extracellular matrix (ECM) produced by HPL cells in the presence of TGF-beta(1) also increased the SPARC levels. Contents of FN and type I collagen in the ECM were increased by TGF-beta(1). HPL cells cultured on FN-coated plates secreted more SPARC than those on non-coated plates. However, type I collagen had little effect on SPARC levels. The addition of anti-alpha5 antibody to the cultures abolished the increase in SPARC mRNA expression by TGF-beta(1). This study demonstrated that FN may be partly involved in the increase in SPARC expression by TGF-beta(1) in HPL cells.     

Modulation of monocyte type I transforming growth factor-beta receptors by inflammatory stimuli.

The regulatory mechanisms which control the wide array of cellular responses to transforming growth factor beta (TGF beta) are not understood. This report presents evidence that down-regulation of TGF beta receptors on human monocytes may be one mechanism by which the effects of TGF beta are regulated. Treatment of monocytes with interferon gamma (IFN gamma) and lipopolysaccharide for 18 h reduced monocyte receptor number (approximately 400/cell) in a dose-dependent fashion by 89 and 78%, respectively, as determined by 125I-TGF beta binding. Incubation with other cytokines (granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, macrophage colony-stimulating factor-1, interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor alpha) did not alter the amount of TGF beta bound. The decrease in 125I-TGF beta binding could not be attributed to competition for receptor sites by secreted TGF beta. Instead, the decline in binding was due to a loss of type I TGF beta receptors, the subtype primarily expressed by monocytes, with no decrease in receptor affinity. Lipopolysaccharide-induced receptor loss was rapid (1-4 h), in contrast to the prolonged (12 h) decline induced by IFN gamma. Loss of receptors was accompanied by a diminished ability of the cells to respond to TGF beta with an induction of TNF alpha mRNA. Thus, this monocyte system is the first example of a heterologous agent causing the down-regulation of TGF beta receptors with a concomitant decline in a TGF beta-stimulated function.     

Type I transforming growth factor-beta receptors on neutrophils mediate chemotaxis to transforming growth factor-beta.

Participation of human polymorphonuclear neutrophils in the inflammatory response is mediated, in part, by soluble factors such as chemotactic peptides and cytokines. Although the cytokine, transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta), has been shown to recruit monocytes and promote the inflammatory process, its effects on neutrophils are unknown. In this investigation, [125I]TGF-beta 1 affinity binding studies were employed to show that neutrophils express TGF-beta receptors (350 +/- 20 receptors/cell), which exhibit high affinity for the ligand (dissociation constant, 50 pM). Affinity cross-linking studies identified the receptors to be primarily of the type I class. In contrast to the receptors on monocytes, neutrophil TGF-beta receptors were not down-regulated by exposure to specific inflammatory mediators. Additional studies examined whether exposure of neutrophils to TGF-beta could enhance specific functions, as occurs with monocytes. TGF-beta was shown to cause directed migration of neutrophils at femtomolar concentrations, thus it is the most potent neutrophil chemotactic factor yet identified. Neutrophil production of reactive oxygen intermediates was not stimulated by TGF-beta, nor did TGF-beta enhance or depress subsequent PMA- or FMLP-stimulated superoxide production. However, the stable expression of neutrophil TGF-beta receptors, and the capacity of this cytokine to stimulate neutrophil chemotaxis, suggest that the pro-inflammatory effects of TGF-beta are mediated by neutrophils in addition to monocytes.     

Effects of transforming growth factor-beta on normal clonal bone cell populations.

Although transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) has been implicated in the local regulation of bone growth and remodelling, its specific effects on different subpopulations of bone cells have not been elucidated. Cells derived from bone are known to be heterogeneous and include both cells of different lineages and osteoblastic populations with different levels of expression of osteoblast-associated properties. Consequently, we have isolated clonal populations of bone cells to examine more precisely the effects of TGF-beta on individual subpopulations. Several clonal populations were isolated by limiting dilution from cells derived from 21-day-old fetal rat calvaria. Two of these clones, RCA 11 and RCB 2, were used here. While the two clones responded similarly to parathyroid hormone (PTH) and isoproterenol (ISP) with increases in intracellular cAMP, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) elicited a 10-fold higher response in RCB 2 cells compared with RCA 11. RCB 2 cells expressed a 10-fold higher alkaline phosphatase activity compared with RCA 11. Both clones synthesized a variety of bone matrix associated proteins, but only RCA 11 synthesized SPP-1 (osteopontin) constitutively. TGF-beta stimulated growth of RCB 2 cells after 24 and 48 h of treatment, but had no effect on growth of RCA 11. TGF-beta supported anchorage-independent growth of RCB 2 cells, but not that of RCA 11. A 24-h exposure to TGF-beta decreased cAMP responsiveness to PTH and ISP slightly in both clones, but had no effect on PGE2 responses. Significant reductions in alkaline phosphatase activity were seen in both clones after 24- and 48-h treatments with TGF-beta.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

转化生长因子β1对大鼠心肌细胞肥大的影响

目的：研究转化生长因子β1（TGF-β1）及其下游Smad3信号蛋白在大鼠心肌细胞肥大中的作用。方法：TGF-β1干预培养新生大鼠心肌细胞,流式细胞仪检测心肌细胞总蛋白含量。结扎大鼠腹主动脉复制心肌肥厚模型,在不同时间点处死动物,检测左室质量指数（LVM1）,RT—PCR检测TGF-β1及Smad3的mRNA表达,Westernblot检测Smad3蛋白的表达。结果：不同剂量TGF-β1均能明显增加体外培养的心肌细胞总蛋白含量,TGF-β1（3ng／ml）还增加心肌细胞Smad3 mRNA和蛋白的表达,其表达量1h达高峰,持续至TGF-β1刺激后8h。大鼠腹主动脉结扎术后3d LVMI开始上升并持续至术后28d,心肌组织中TGF-β1、Smad3的mRNA表达水平以及Smad3蛋白表达术后3d也开始上升持续至术后28d,术后14d为表达高峰（P〈0．01）。结论：TGF-β1能诱导大鼠心肌细胞肥大,其信号蛋白Smad3参与了大鼠心肌肥大的病理过程。     

Interaction of transforming growth factor-beta 1 with alpha 2-macroglobulin. Role in transforming growth factor-beta 1 clearance.

It has been widely assumed that the interaction of transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-beta 1) with its serum-binding protein, alpha 2-macroglobulin (alpha 2M), mediates the rapid clearance of TGF-beta 1 from the circulation. To test this, we have analyzed the effect of TGF-beta 1 binding on the conformational state of alpha 2M. Our results demonstrate that the binding of TGF-beta 1 to alpha 2M does not lead to the conformational change in the alpha 2M molecule that is required for the clearance of the alpha 2M.TGF-beta 1 complex via the alpha 2M receptor. Furthermore, endogenous TGF-beta 1 is associated with the conformationally unaltered slow clearance form of alpha 2M. Clearance studies in mice show that the half-life of 125I-TGF-beta 1 in the circulation (1.6 +/- 0.71 min) is not affected by blocking the alpha 2M receptor with excess conformationally altered alpha 2M. These results suggest that TGF-beta 1 is rapidly cleared from the circulation after injection by a pathway not involving alpha 2M.     

Transforming growth factor-beta enhances calcitonin-induced cyclic AMP production and the number of calcitonin receptors in long-term cultures of human umbilical cord blood monocytes in the presence of 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol.

Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) is a multifunctional polypeptide, abundant in bone, that regulates both proliferation and differentiation of a wide variety of cells, but its role in osteoclast differentiation remains controversial. We have recently shown that long-term cultures of human cord blood monocytes, in the presence of 1,25 dihydroxycholecalciferol (1,25-(OH)2D3), give rise to cells that express two markers of the osteoclast phenotype, namely, the vitronectin receptor (VNR) and the calcitonin receptor (CTR). TGF-beta enhanced the proportion of cells expressing the VNR. In the present study, we investigated the effect of TGF-beta on the expression of CTR in cord blood monocytes cultured during 3 weeks in the presence of 1,25-(OH)2D3. When added within the first 2 weeks of culture, TGF-beta (500 pg/ml) significantly decreased the cell protein content. TGF-beta alone did not stimulate basal cAMP production. The 10 nM-sCT-stimulated cAMP production was enhanced by increasing TGF-beta concentrations from 50 pg/ml to 1,000 pg/ml: for 500 pg/ml TGF-beta, it was 294 +/- 28% vs. 140 +/- 25% for control cultures (p less than 0.01). The sCT dose-response curves showed a higher cAMP production from 10(-9) M to 10(-7) M of sCT in the presence of 500 pg/ml TGF-beta than in control cultures. The increase was 325 +/- 36% in the presence of TGF-beta and 195 +/- 13% in the absence of TGF-beta, for 10(-7) M sCT (p less than 0.01). This effect of TGF-beta on cAMP production was not observed either when it was added to monocyte cultures the last day or 2 hours before the end of the culture or in MCF7, a human breast cancer cell line that expresses CTR. [125I]-sCT binding studies performed on confluent cells showed similar Kd in control and TGF-beta-treated cells. By contrast, the CTR number was significantly increased in the presence of TGF-beta: 6.1 +/- 2 x 10(4) receptors per cell in control cultures and 28.8 +/- 8.1 x 10(4) receptors per cell in TGF-beta-treated cultures (p less than 0.05). It is thus suggested that TGF-beta increases the number of CTR of these cells that have other features of preosteoclasts. The role of this cytokine on the process of osteoclast differentiation and in bone resorption is thus emphasized.     

Dominant negative mutants of transforming growth factor-beta 1 inhibit the secretion of different transforming growth factor-beta isoforms.

Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) is a secreted polypeptide factor that is thought to play a major role in the regulation of proliferation of many cell types and various differentiation processes. Several related isoforms have been structurally characterized, three of which, TGF-beta 1, -beta 2, and -beta 3, have been detected in mammalian cells and tissues. Each TGF-beta form is a homodimer of a 112-amino-acid polypeptide which is encoded as a larger polypeptide precursor. We have introduced several mutations in the TGF-beta 1 precursor domain, resulting in an inhibition of TGF-beta 1 secretion. Coexpression of these mutants with wild-type TGF-beta 1, -beta 2, and -beta 3 results in a competitive and specific inhibition of the secretion of different TFG-beta forms, indicating that these mutated versions act as dominant negative mutants for TGF-beta secretion. Overexpression of dominant negative mutants can thus be used to abolish endogenous secretion of TGF-beta and structurally related family members, both in vitro and in vivo, and to probe in this way the physiological functions of the members of the TGF-beta superfamily.     

Environment-dependent growth inhibition of human epidermal keratinocytes by recombinant human transforming growth factor-beta

Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) purified from platelets is a potent growth inhibitor of several normal epithelial cell types in culture. In contrast, some carcinoma cell lines derived from tumors of these same tissues are resistant to this factor. Using recombinant human TGF-beta, the authors have confirmed these results with six normal human epidermal keratinocyte strains and four human epidermal squamous carcinoma cell lines. However, the sensitivity of normal cells to TGF-beta was found to depend on the culture conditions. When grown in a specialized nutrient medium supplemented with pituitary extract, keratinocytes were completely inhibited by the addition of 0.3 ng/ml TGF-beta. In contrast, when their growth was supported by cocultivation with 3T3 fibroblast feeder cells, 30- to 100-fold higher concentrations of TGF-beta were required to achieve comparable growth inhibition. This differential sensitivity occurred despite the fact that in both culture systems TGF-beta in the culture medium had a half-life of about 50 minutes, becoming tightly bound to the surface of the culture dish. Bound TGF-beta proved to be biologically active and stable for about a week in the absence of 3T3 feeder cells. Incubating 3T3 cells on TGF-beta-coated dishes, however, resulted in nearly quantitative removal and degradation of the TGF-beta within 2 days, permitting normal rates of keratinocyte growth. The binding of TGF-beta to surfaces and the ability of fibroblasts to attenuate its inhibitory activity for epithelial cells must be considered when evaluating in vitro models and in planning strategies for the use of this factor in vivo.     

Visualisation of transforming growth factor-beta 1, tissue kallikrein, and kinin and transforming growth factor-beta receptors on human clear-cell renal carcinoma cells

Transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) has a biphasic effect on the growth of renal epithelial cells. In transformed cells, TGF-beta1 appears to accelerate the proliferation of malignant cells. The diverse cellular functions of TGF-beta1 are regulated by three high-affinity serine/threonine kinase receptors, namely TbetaRI, TbetaRII and TbetaRIII. The renal serine protease tissue kallikrein acts on its endogenous protein substrate kininogen to form kinin peptides. The cellular actions of kinins are mediated through B1 and B2 G protein-coupled rhodopsin receptors. Both kinin peptides and TGF-beta1 are mitogenic, and therefore may play an important role in carcinogenesis. Experiments were designed to immunolabel tissue kallikrein, TGF-beta1, TbetaRII, TbetaRIII and kinin receptors using specific antibodies on serial sections of normal kidney and clear-cell renal carcinoma (CCRC) tissue, which included both the tumour and the adjacent renal parenchyma. The essential result was the localisation of tissue kallikrein, kinin B 1 and B 2 receptors and TGF-beta1 primarily on the cell membranes of CCRC cells. In the distal and proximal tubules of the renal parenchyma adjacent to the carcinoma (RPTAC), immunolabelling for tissue kallikrein was reduced, but the expression of kinin B1 and B2 receptors was enhanced. Immunolabelling for TbetaRII and TbetaRIII was more pronounced in the proximal tubules of the tissue adjacent to the carcinoma when compared to the normal kidney. The expression of tissue kallikrein, kinin receptors, and TbetaRII and TbetaRIII may be relevant to the parenchymal invasion and metastasis of clear-cell renal carcinoma.     

Cocaine potentiates HIV-1 replication in human peripheral blood mononuclear cell cocultures. Involvement of transforming growth factor-beta

Cocaine use is an important high risk behavior in the AIDS epidemic. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that cocaine potentiates the replication of HIV-1 in human PBMC. A coculture system was used in which PBMC from healthy donors were incubated in the absence (control) or presence of cocaine before activation with PHA. Cocultures were then constituted with PBMC infected with a clinical isolate of HIV-1. HIV-1 replication, which was assessed by the measurement of HIV-1 p24 antigen levels in coculture supernatants, was significantly increased in a dose-dependent manner by cocaine with maximal stimulation at a concentration of 10(-9) M (965 +/- 196 vs 303 +/- 80 pg p24 Ag/ml in control cocultures). Antibodies to transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) blocked cocaine-enhanced HIV-1 replication and purified TGF-beta stimulated viral replication in a manner similar to that observed with cocaine. Augmentation of HIV-1 replication by TGF-beta was maximal at a concentration of 0.01 ng/ml; however, viral proliferation appeared to be inhibited by concentrations of TGF-beta of 1 ng/ml or greater. Taken together, these results indicate that cocaine augments the replication of HIV-1 in PHA-activated PBMC via a mechanism that appears to involve TGF-beta.     

Endothelial cell regulation by transforming growth factor-beta.

Pronounced changes including growth inhibition, increased matrix deposition and suppression of cell-associated proteolytic activity, take place in endothelial cells (EC) upon the application of TGF-beta. Interrelationships between these effects have shed some light on the mechanism of action of TGF-beta and on its role in regulating EC function vis-a-vis angiogenesis. For instance, preliminary evidence has indicated that increased levels of certain matrix components may be partly responsible for the antiproliferative action of TGF-beta. In addition, TGF-beta and bFGF have opposing effects on cellular proteolytic balance which may contribute to the antagonistic effect that TGF-beta has on bFGF-induced EC growth and possibly to the anti-angiogenic effect exerted by TGF-beta under certain circumstances. Of particular interest in this regard is the fact that physical contact between EC and vascular mural cells in EC:mural cell cocultures has been found to generate active TGF-beta, thus further implicating TGF-beta in the maintenance of the quiescent, differentiated aggregation of EC as found in vascular structures in vivo. While more information is needed to define what, if any role TGF-beta plays in endothelial differentiation, it is to be noted that many of the cellular and biochemical processes affected by TGF-beta are linked to differentiation. It is therefore possible that the growth inhibition of EC by TGF-beta primes them for differentiation and/or is critical for the maintenance of a differentiated state.     

Induction of podoplanin by transforming growth factor-beta in human fibrosarcoma

Podoplanin/aggrus is increased in tumors and its expression was associated with tumor malignancy. Podoplanin on cancer cells serves as a platelet-aggregating factor, which is associated with the metastatic potential. However, regulators of podoplanin remain to be determined. Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) regulates many physiological events, including tumorigenesis. Here, we found that TGF-beta induced podoplanin in human fibrosarcoma HT1080 cells and enhanced the platelet-aggregating-ability of HT1080. TGF-beta type I receptor inhibitor (SB431542) and short hairpin RNAs for Smad4 inhibited the podoplanin induction by TGF-beta. These results suggest that TGF-beta is a physiological regulator of podoplanin in tumor cells.     

Differential proliferative effects of transforming growth factor-beta on human hematopoietic progenitor cells

Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF beta) regulates cell growth and differentiation in numerous cell systems, including several hematopoietic lineages. We used in vitro cultures of highly enriched hematopoietic progenitor cells stimulated by natural and recombinant growth factors to investigate the biologic effects of TGF beta 1 and TGF beta 2 on erythroid (CFU-E and burst-forming unit (BFU)-E), granulocyte-macrophage (CFU-GM) and multilineage (i.e., granulocyte, erythroid, macrophage, and megakaryocyte; CFU-GEMM) colony-forming cells. In the absence of exogenous CSF, neither TGF beta 1 nor TGF beta 2 supported progenitor cell growth. In the presence of recombinant or natural CSF, picomolar concentrations of TGF beta 1 inhibited growth of CFU-E, BFU-E, and CFU-GEMM and enhanced growth of day 7 CFU-GM. Inhibition of CFU-E and BFU-E by human and porcine TGF beta 1 was similar, ranging from 17 to 73% over a concentration range of 0.05 to 1.0 ng/ml, and was largely independent of the type of burst-promoting activity used (rIL-3 vs cell line 5637-conditioned medium). Inhibition of CFU-GEMM ranged from 79 to 98% over a concentration range of 0.25 to 1.0 ng/ml. The inhibitory effect of TGF beta 1 was progressively lost when its addition was delayed for 40 to 120 h, suggesting a mode of action during early cell divisions. In contrast, growth of CFU-GM stimulated by plateau concentrations of human rG-CSF, rGM-CSF, and rIL-3 was enhanced up to 154 +/- 22% by human TGF beta 1. Porcine platelet-derived TGF beta 2 was essentially without effect on the progenitor populations examined. These results support the hypothesis that TGF beta may play role in the regulation of hematopoietic progenitor cell proliferation by differentially affecting individual lineages and is apparently capable of doing so in the relative absence of marrow accessory cells.     

Binding of transforming growth factor-beta 1 to immobilized human alpha 2-macroglobulin.

Native alpha 2-macroglobulin (alpha 2M) and alpha 2M-methylamine were immobilized in 96-well microtiter plates. 125I-labeled transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-beta 1) bound to both alpha 2M variants; however, greater binding was observed with alpha 2M-methylamine. Binding of 125I-TGF-beta 1 (0.2 nM) to immobilized alpha 2M-methylamine was inhibited by nonradiolabeled TGF-beta 1 (up to 74% with 0.4 microM TGF-beta 1). Approximately 10% of the TGF-beta 1-alpha 2M-methylamine complex was covalent. Treatment of alpha 2M-methylamine with iodoacetamide prior to immobilization completely eliminated covalent TGF-beta 1 binding; the total amount of 125I-TGF-beta 1-alpha 2M-methylamine complex detected was unchanged. The binding of 125I-TGF-beta 1 to immobilized alpha 2M-methylamine was not significantly inhibited by increasing the ionic strength to 1.0 M. Binding and complex dissociation were also unaffected by changes in pH within the range 6.9-8.9. Acidic pH dramatically decreased binding and promoted complex dissociation; no binding of 125I-TGF-beta 1 to immobilized alpha 2M-methylamine was detected at pH 3.5. The interaction of TGF-beta 1 with immobilized alpha 2M-methylamine was not significantly changed by 1.0 mM EDTA or 1.0 mM CaCl2. ZnCl2 (1.0 mM) completely eliminated binding. This result was not due to TGF-beta 1 precipitation or aggregation. Inhibition of 125I-TGF-beta 1 binding to alpha 2M-methylamine was 50% complete (IC50) with 30 microM ZnCl2. Native alpha 2M, thrombospondin, and alpha 2M-methylamine (in solution) decreased binding of 125I-TGF-beta 1 to immobilized alpha 2M-methylamine. The IC50 values for these three proteins were 520, 160, and 79 nM, respectively. The TGF-beta 1-binding activity of native alpha 2M may have reflected, at least in part, trace-contamination with alpha 2M-proteinase complex.