细胞凋亡中的Caspase家族

保守的Asp特异性半胱氨酸蛋白酶(Caspase)家族是哺乳动物细胞中程序性死亡(PCD)的介导者和执行者. 原凋亡信号首先活化不同的Caspase启始因子,再由启始因子激活级联下游的Caspase效应分子,最终由效应分子特异地水解细胞中的一系列底物而导致细胞解体.Caspase家族是整个PCD过程的关键元件,它们通过与众多蛋白质(激活因子或抑制因子)的相互作用来调控细胞的生死存亡.     

HIV Vpr蛋白诱导细胞凋亡研究进展

Vpr蛋白是HIV的一个辅助蛋白,可以诱导多种细胞的凋亡。目前的研究表明Vpr蛋白引起细胞凋亡主要是通过线粒体途径实现的。Vpr蛋白通过直接而且特异地与结合在PTPC中的ANT相互作用,改变线粒体膜通透性,导致凋亡诱导因子(AIF)和细胞色素C的释放,激活Caspase、DNases等的级联反应,引起核染色质的固缩,最终引起细胞凋亡。     

Caspase的活化及其在细胞凋亡中的作用

Caspase是执行细胞凋亡的主要酶类,目前已鉴定的哺乳动物Caspase有14种。Caspase以酶原的形式合成,催化活性很低,必须激活以后才能发挥作用。活化的Caspase通过特异性的裂解一套底物而导致细胞凋亡。与Caspase有关的细胞凋亡通路至少有三种：线粒体／细胞色素c通路、死亡受体通路和内质网通路。Caspase总是与其抑制剂共存,以防止Caspase酶原意外激活而对正常细胞造成损伤。     

Caspase的非凋亡性作用

Caspase是一类胱天蛋白酶家族。大多数Caspase以半胱氨酸作为裂解底物的亲核基团,通过切割底物蛋白引起细胞凋亡。但是,研究发现Caspase存在非凋亡性作用,即Caspase活化后并不引发细胞凋亡,而是通过剪切不同底物或蛋白质互作,介导其他生物学事件,包括细胞增殖、分化、迁移、存活、形态重塑等。部分细胞的分化依赖于Caspase瞬时或位点局限的激活,细胞形态呈现类似于凋亡(不完全凋亡)的改变。Caspase对信号分子、转录因子的剪切灭活,可发挥转换细胞命运和分化进程的作用。在组织损伤时,应激细胞Caspase活化后,可提高自身防御能力,并通过旁分泌来指导邻近细胞进行补偿修复。因此,Caspase的活化不仅仅是一种细胞死亡信号,它的特定活化还是更改细胞形态、行为、命运的重要应激信号和效应分子。     

Caspase的非凋亡性作用CSCD

Caspase是一类胱天蛋白酶家族。大多数Caspase以半胱氨酸作为裂解底物的亲核基团,通过切割底物蛋白引起细胞凋亡。但是,研究发现Caspase存在非凋亡性作用,即Caspase活化后并不引发细胞凋亡,而是通过剪切不同底物或蛋白质互作,介导其他生物学事件,包括细胞增殖、分化、迁移、存活、形态重塑等。部分细胞的分化依赖于Caspase瞬时或位点局限的激活,细胞形态呈现类似于凋亡(不完全凋亡)的改变。Caspase对信号分子、转录因子的剪切灭活,可发挥转换细胞命运和分化进程的作用。在组织损伤时,应激细胞Caspase活化后,可提高自身防御能力,并通过旁分泌来指导邻近细胞进行补偿修复。因此,Caspase的活化不仅仅是一种细胞死亡信号,它的特定活化还是更改细胞形态、行为、命运的重要应激信号和效应分子。     

TGF-β与Caspase在肿瘤细胞凋亡中的作用

TGF-β（transforming growth factor beta）是一种多功能的多肽类细胞因子,在调节细胞的生长和分化中起重要作用。从分子水平上,在不同的细胞中,TGF-β1刺激细胞凋亡是通过影响p38和ERK1/ERK-MAPK激酶的活性来介导的。Caspase半胱氨酸蛋白酶家族引发的级联反应是胞凋亡过程的中心环节,激活后的下游caspase通过切割特异性底物,导致细胞凋亡。在肿瘤细胞的凋亡过程中,TGF-β和caspase起着十分重要的作用。     

Smac/DIABLO在过氧化氢所致C2C12肌原细胞凋亡中的作用

为探讨Smac/DIABLO在过氧化氢 (H2 O2 )所致C2 C12 肌原细胞凋亡中的作用 ,采用Hoechst 3 3 2 58染色 ,观察H2 O2 (0 5mmol/L)处理C2 C12 肌原细胞不同时间后 ,细胞核形态学改变并计算凋亡核百分率 ,DNA抽提及琼脂糖电泳观察凋亡特征性梯状带 ,利用细胞成分分离后蛋白质印迹分析H2 O2 是否导致Smac/DIABLO从线粒体释放 ,采用Caspase检测试剂盒及蛋白质印迹分析Caspase 3和Caspase 9的活化 ,转染Smac/DIABLO基因 ,观察Smac/DIABLO过表达对H2 O2 所致的C2 C12 肌原细胞凋亡的影响 .结果表明 :H2 O2 处理 1h后 ,Smac/DIABLO从C2 C12 肌原细胞线粒体释放入胞浆 ,2h更明显 ;H2 O2 处理 4h后 ,Caspase 3和Caspase 9活化 ,12h达高峰 ;H2 O2 处理 2 4h后 ,C2 C12 肌原细胞显示特征性的凋亡形态改变 ,凋亡核百分率明显升高 ,DNA电泳出现明显“梯状”条带 .与单纯过氧化氢损伤组相比 ,Smac/DIABLO高表达的C2 C12 肌原细胞经过氧化氢损伤组的Caspase 3和Caspase 9的活化、凋亡核百分率的升高、“梯状”条带的出现均更明显 .结果表明 ,H2 O2 可导致Smac/DIABLO从C2 C12 肌原细胞线粒体释放 ,促进Caspase 9和Caspase 3的活化而促进细胞凋亡的发生     

线粒体与细胞凋亡调控

细胞凋亡是一个受到一系列相关基因严格调控的细胞死亡过程。线粒体是细胞凋亡调控的活动中心。在凋亡因子的刺激下,线粒体释放出不同促凋亡因子如细胞色素C、Smac／Diablo等,激活细胞内凋亡蛋白酶Caspase。我们发现,活化后的Caspase可以反过来作用于线粒体,引发更大量线粒体细胞色素c的释放,构成细胞色素c释放的正反馈调节机制,从而导致电子传递链的中断、膜电势的丧失、胞内ROS的升高以及线粒体产生ATP功能的完全丧失。Bcl-2家族蛋白在细胞色素C释放和细胞凋亡调控中起关键作用。     

Caspase的结构与功能

Caspase是执行细胞凋亡的主要酶类,绝大部分细胞凋亡依赖于Caspase的存在。目前已鉴定的哺乳动物Caspase有14种,它们具有很多共同的特点。Caspase酶原包括3个部分：原域、大亚单位和小亚单位。酶原本身的活性很低,但可以通过不同的方式被激活。一旦原域以及大、小亚单位之间的连结被切除,大小亚单位之间的连结被切除,大小亚单位之间相互作用形成一异二聚体,其中包含一个活性位点;两个异二聚体形成一个四聚体,成为Caspase的活性形式,活化的Caspase是细胞凋亡过程中的关键酶类,通过特异性的裂解底物而发挥其执行细胞凋亡的功能。此外,Caspase还在细胞因子成熟过程中发挥重要作用。     

DFF和CIDE介导细胞凋亡的分子机制

DNA裂解因子（DFF）是由分子量分别为45kD和40kD两个亚单位组成的异源二聚体。在细胞凋亡信号启动的caspase级联活化过程中作为下游caspase的底物被活化并形成脱氧核糖核酸酶（DNase)。从而介导并调节DNA断裂和染色质凝聚,DFF作为细胞凋亡信号传递的主要途径在细胞凋亡中起着关键作用。诱导细胞死亡的DFF45样效应因子（CIDE）是与DFF同源的诱导凋亡因子,CIDE与DFF在结构,功能和作用上有很大的相似性,可发挥诱导凋亡的作用。本阐述了DFF和CIDE在诱导细胞凋亡过程中担当的角色和它们相互作用的机制。从而揭示DFF和CIDE在细胞凋亡过程中作为传递凋亡信号-caspase级联反应的下游因子在诱导凋亡时所处的关键地位和重要功能。     

Cell survival and proliferation in Drosophila S2 cells following apoptotic stress in the absence of the APAF-1 homolog, ARK, or downstream caspases

In Drosophila, the APAF-1 homolog ARK is required for the activation of the initiator caspase DRONC, which in turn cleaves the effector caspases DRICE and DCP-1. While the function of ARK is important in stress-induced apoptosis in Drosophila S2 cells, as its removal completely suppresses cell death, the decision to undergo apoptosis appears to be regulated at the level of caspase activation, which is controlled by the IAP proteins, particularly DIAP1. Here, we further dissect the apoptotic pathways induced in Drosophila S2 cells in response to stressors and in response to knock-down of DIAP1. We found that the induction of apoptosis was dependent in each case on expression of ARK and DRONC and surviving cells continued to proliferate. We noted a difference in the effects of silencing the executioner caspases DCP-1 and DRICE; knock-down of either or both of these had dramatic effects to sustain cell survival following depletion of DIAP1, but had only minor effects following cellular stress. Our results suggest that the executioner caspases are essential for death following DIAP1 knock-down, indicating that the initiator caspase DRONC may lack executioner functions. The apparent absence of mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP) in Drosophila apoptosis may permit the cell to thrive when caspase activation is disrupted.     

Involvement of caspases in 4-hydroxy-alkenal-induced apoptosis in human leukemic cells

4-Hydroxynonenal (HNE), a reactive and cytotoxic end-product of lipid peroxidation, has been suggested to be a key mediator of oxidative stress-induced cell death and in various cell types has been shown to induce apoptosis. We have demonstrated that HNE, at micromolar concentrations, induces dose- and time-dependent apoptosis in a leukemic cell line (CEM-C7). Interestingly, much higher concentrations of HNE (> 15-fold) were required to induce apoptosis in leukocytes obtained from normal individuals. We also demonstrate that HNE causes a decrease in clonogenicity of CEM-C7 cells. Furthermore, our data characterize the caspase cascade involved in HNE-induced apoptosis in CEM-C7 cells. Using specific fluorogenic substrates and irreversible peptide inhibitors, we demonstrate that caspase 2, caspase 3, and caspase 8 are involved in HNE-induced apoptosis, and that caspase 2 is the first initiator caspase that activates the executioner caspase 3, either directly or via activation of caspase 8. Our studies also suggest the involvement of another executioner caspase, which appears to be similar to caspase 8 but not caspases 2 and 3, in its specificity. The demonstration of decreased clonogenicity by HNE in the leukemic cells, and their higher susceptibility to HNE-induced apoptosis as compared to the normal cells, suggests that such compounds may have potential for leukemia chemotherapy.     

Identification of early intermediates of caspase activation using selective inhibitors and activity-based probes

Caspases are cysteine proteases that are key effectors in apoptotic cell death. Currently, there is a lack of tools that can be used to monitor the regulation of specific caspases in the context of distinct apoptotic programs. We describe the development of highly selective inhibitors and active site probes and their applications to directly monitor executioner (caspase-3 and -7) and initiator (caspase-8 and -9) caspase activity. Specifically, these reagents were used to dissect the kinetics of caspase activation upon stimulation of apoptosis in cell-free extracts and intact cells. These studies identified a full-length caspase-7 intermediate that becomes catalytically activated early in the pathway and whose further processing is mediated by mature executioner caspases rather than initiator caspases. This form also shows distinct inhibitor sensitivity compared to processed caspase-7. Our data suggest that caspase-7 activation proceeds through a previously uncharacterized intermediate that is formed without cleavage of the intact zymogen.     

Mitochondria and caspases in induced apoptosis in human luteinized granulosa cells

Apoptosis occurs as a physiologic process in the ovarian life cycle. Staurosporine, a protein kinase inhibitor, is reported to induce apoptosis. Here, we hypothesize that staurosporine will induce apoptosis in human luteinized granulosa cells and that mitochondria and the caspase cascade participate in this process. Luteinized granulosa cells isolated from in vitro fertilization patients were treated with staurosporine. Microscopy revealed that staurosporine treatment resulted in cells exhibiting evidence of apoptosis, including cell detachment, loss of cell processes, membrane shrinkage, and formation of apoptotic bodies. In the staurosporine-treated cells, flow cytometry and confocal microscopy showed a decrease in the mitochondrial cardiolipin levels. Western analysis showed cleavage of caspase-9, an initiator caspase, of caspase-3, an executioner caspase, and of a caspase substrate, poly-(ADP-ribose)-polymerase (PARP) in staurosporine-treated cells. These data support our hypothesis and that this is the first demonstration of the involvement of mitochondria and of cleavage of caspases in human luteinized granulosa cell apoptosis. This may serve as a useful model to delineate the mechanism of apoptosis in the ovary, such as corpus luteum regression.     

Effect of Hypoxia on Caspase-3, -8, and -9 Activity and Expression in the Cerebral Cortex of Newborn Piglets

Caspases play an important role in programmed cell death. Caspase-3 is a key executioner of apoptosis, whose activation is mediated by the initiator caspases, caspase-8 and caspase-9. The present study tested the hypothesis that cerebral hypoxia results in increased activation and expression of caspases-3, -8, and -9 in the cytosolic fraction of the cerebral cortex of newborn piglets. To test this hypothesis the activity and expression of caspases-3, -8, and -9 were determined in newborn piglets divided into normoxic and hypoxic groups. Caspase activity was determined spectrofluorometrically using enzyme specific substrates. The expression of caspase protein was assessed by Western blot analysis using enzyme specific antibody. Caspases-3, -8, and -9 activity and expression was significantly higher in the hypoxic group than in the normoxic group. These results demonstrate that hypoxia induces activation and increased expression of both the initiator caspases and the executioner caspase in the cerebral cortex of newborn piglets. We conclude that hypoxia results in stimulation of both the pathways of caspase-3 activation.     

Mechanisms of caspase activation

The core effectors of apoptosis encompass proteolytic enzymes of the caspase family, which reside as latent precursors in most nucleated metazoan cells. A majority of studies on apoptosis are based on the assumption that caspase precursors are activated by cleavage, a common mechanism for most protease zymogen activations. Although this appears to be true for the executioner caspases, recent research points to a distinct activation mechanism for the initiator caspases that trigger the apoptotic pathways. This mechanism is proximity-induced dimerization without cleavage, and its elucidation has led to the revision of concepts of feedback regulation of apoptosis.     

Caspase activation

Caspase activation is the 'point of no return' commitment to cell death. Synthesized as inactive zymogens, it is essential that the caspases remain inactive until the death signal is received. It is known for the downstream executioner caspases-3 and -7 that the activation event is proteolytic cleavage, and this had been assumed to apply to the initiator caspases as well. However, recent studies conducted on caspases-2, -8 and -9 have challenged this tenet of caspase activation. In this review we focus on the molecular details of caspase activation, with emphasis on recent work that provides a pleasing explanation for the differential requirements for the activation of executioner and initiator caspases.     

Molecular determinants involved in activation of caspase 7

During apoptosis, initiator caspases (8, 9 and 10) activate downstream executioner caspases (3, 6 and 7) by cleaving the IDC (interdomain connector) at two sites. Here, we demonstrate that both activation sites, site 1 and site 2, of caspase 7 are suboptimal for activation by initiator caspases 8 and 9 in cellulo, and in vitro using recombinant proteins and activation kinetics. Indeed, when both sites are replaced with the preferred motifs recognized by either caspase 8 or 9, we found an up to 36-fold improvement in activation. Moreover, cleavage at site 1 is preferred to site 2 because of its location within the IDC, since swapping sites does not lead to a more efficient activation. We also demonstrate the important role of Ile195 of site 1 involved in maintaining a network of contacts that preserves the proper conformation of the active enzyme. Finally, we show that the length of the IDC plays a crucial role in maintaining the necessity of proteolysis for activation. In fact, although we were unable to generate a caspase 7 that does not require proteolysis for activity, shortening the IDC of the initiator caspase 8 by four residues was sufficient to confer a requirement for proteolysis, a key feature of executioner caspases. Altogether, the results demonstrate the critical role of the primary structure of caspase 7's IDC for its activation and proteolytic activity.     

A comparative study of proteasomal inhibition and apoptosis induced in N27 mesencephalic cells by dopamine and MG132

Dopamine (DA) and its metabolites have been implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. DA can produce reactive-oxygen species and DA-derived quinones such as aminochrome can induce proteasomal inhibition. We therefore examined the ability of DA and MG132 to induce apoptosis and proteasomal inhibition in N27 rat dopaminergic cells. DA (0-500 micromol/L, 0-24 h) and MG132 (0-5 micromol/L, 0-24 h) treated N27 cells resulted in time- and concentration-dependent apoptosis. To better define DA and MG132-induced apoptosis, the activation of initiator caspases 2 and caspase 9 and the executioner caspase 3 was investigated. Activation of caspase 2, caspase 9, and caspase 3 occurred early and prior to cell death. In addition, N-acetylcysteine (NAC) blocked DA but not MG132-induced apoptosis and mitochondrial membrane potential loss. NAC can react with both reactive-oxygen and quinoid metabolites and its inhibitory activity suggests a role for reactive species in DA-induced apoptosis. Proteasomal inhibition was detected after DA treatment in N27 cells which occurred prior to cell death and was abrogated by NAC. Our results implicate DA-derived reactive species in proteasomal inhibition and caspase-dependent apoptosis in N27 cells. The ability of endogenous DA-derived metabolites to induce proteasomal inhibition and apoptosis may contribute to the selective loss of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease.     

New insights into the apoptotic process in mollusks: characterization of caspase genes in Mytilus galloprovincialis

Apoptosis is an essential biological process in the development and maintenance of immune system homeostasis. Caspase proteins constitute the core of the apoptotic machinery and can be categorized as either initiators or effectors of apoptosis. Although the genes encoding caspase proteins have been described in vertebrates and in almost all invertebrate phyla, there are few reports describing the initiator and executioner caspases or the modulation of their expression by different stimuli in different apoptotic pathways in bivalves. In the present work, we characterized two initiator and four executioner caspases in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. Both initiators and executioners showed structural features that make them different from other caspase proteins already described. Evaluation of the genes' tissue expression patterns revealed extremely high expression levels within the gland and gills, where the apoptotic process is highly active due to the clearance of damaged cells. Hemocytes also showed high expression values, probably due to of the role of apoptosis in the defense against pathogens. To understand the mechanisms of caspase gene regulation, hemocytes were treated with UV-light, environmental pollutants and pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and apoptosis was evaluated by microscopy, flow cytometry and qPCR techniques. Our results suggest that the apoptotic process could be tightly regulated in bivalve mollusks by overexpression/suppression of caspase genes; additionally, there is evidence of caspase-specific responses to pathogens and pollutants. The apoptotic process in mollusks has a similar complexity to that of vertebrates, but presents unique features that may be related to recurrent exposure to environmental changes, pollutants and pathogens imposed by their sedentary nature.