Neandertal mobility and large-game hunting: The exploitation of reindeer during the Quina Mousterian at Chez-Pinaud Jonzac (Charente-Maritime, France)

Neandertals were effective hunters of large ungulates throughout their geographic and temporal ranges. Equipped with this knowledge, researchers in paleoanthropology continue to seek insight on the relationships between hunting and subsistence strategies with other components of the Neandertals’ niche, such as mobility, site use, and lithic technology. The Quina Mousterian deposits from the rockshelter site of Chez Pinaud Jonzac (Charente-Maritime, France; hereafter Jonzac) offer an excellent opportunity to pursue these issues. This paper focuses on the extensive and well-preserved skeletal remains of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) recovered from recent excavations of the site, representing at least 18 individuals that were hunted by Neandertals during the fall through winter. Our zooarchaeological results indicate that all ages of reindeer were hunted but adult individuals predominate. No bias is evident in the comparable frequencies of males and females. These prey were butchered on-site, with abundant evidence of meat filleting and marrow exploitation. In the excavated sample, the absence of hearths and the almost complete lack of burned bones or stones suggest that Neandertals were not using fire to assist with processing the reindeer carcasses. The zooarchaeological results presented here indicate that reindeer were hunted during a restricted window of time when they were seasonally abundant in the local area near Jonzac. Taken together with the lithic industry based on bifacial elements, the evidence is consistent with a pattern of site use by highly mobile hunter-gatherers making frequent, short-term visits. Ongoing research at Jonzac and other Quina Mousterian localities will contribute to a better understanding of Neandertal behavior during cold climate phases.     

Zooarchaeological analysis of the Raşcov 8 Upper Palaeolithic site (Republic of Moldova)

The Palaeolithic site of Raşcov 8, discovered in the 1950's, was recently subjected to new investigations. It yielded archaeological layers from the Upper Pleniglacial. We used zooarchaeological methods to deepen knowledge about this site. We focused on the taphonomy, the anatomical representation of the different species and the anthropogenic activities to better determine the use of natural resources by humans, in particular of animal origin, to understand which strategies were used, the technocultural practices and territory occupation. The taphonomic observations are quite typical of a dry and cold environment. They also suggest that the 3 and 3a layers result from the same or chronogically closely occupations, affected by soil movements. Concerning the anthropogenic features, repeated short-term occupations, on a seasonal basis, mainly hunting and butchering activities of one or several small human groups have been highlighted. Whereas in the older layer humans exploited the carcass of a mammoth, in the other layers they hunted reindeer and horses and butchered the carcasses on the site, probably transporting some parts elsewhere. Whereas the lithic industries are different between layers 4/3-3a (Epiaurignacian) and 2/1 (Epigravettian), the subsistence behavior is similar and quite typical of Molodovian.     

Adaptation and niche construction in human prehistory: a case study from the southern Scandinavian Late Glacial

The niche construction model postulates that human bio-social evolution is composed of three inheritance domains, genetic, cultural and ecological, linked by feedback selection. This paper argues that many kinds of archaeological data can serve as proxies for human niche construction processes, and presents a method for investigating specific niche construction hypotheses. To illustrate this method, the repeated emergence of specialized reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) hunting/herding economies during the Late Palaeolithic (ca 14.7-11.5 kyr BP) in southern Scandinavia is analysed from a niche construction/triple-inheritance perspective. This economic relationship resulted in the eventual domestication of Rangifer. The hypothesis of whether domestication was achieved as early as the Late Palaeolithic, and whether this required the use of domesticated dogs (Canis familiaris) as hunting, herding or transport aids, is tested via a comparative analysis using material culture-based phylogenies and ecological datasets in relation to demographic/genetic proxies. Only weak evidence for sustained niche construction behaviours by prehistoric hunter-gatherer in southern Scandinavia is found, but this study nonetheless provides interesting insights into the likely processes of dog and reindeer domestication, and into processes of adaptation in Late Glacial foragers.     

Hunted Woolly Monkeys (Lagothrix poeppigii) Show Threat-Sensitive Responses to Human Presence

Responding only to individuals of a predator species which display threatening behaviour allows prey species to minimise energy expenditure and other costs of predator avoidance, such as disruption of feeding. The threat sensitivity hypothesis predicts such behaviour in prey species. If hunted animals are unable to distinguish dangerous humans from non-dangerous humans, human hunting is likely to have a greater effect on prey populations as all human encounters should lead to predator avoidance, increasing stress and creating opportunity costs for exploited populations. We test the threat sensitivity hypothesis in wild Poeppigi''s woolly monkeys (Lagothrix poeppigii) in Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, by presenting human models engaging in one of three behaviours “hunting”, “gathering” or “researching”. These experiments were conducted at two sites with differing hunting pressures. Visibility, movement and vocalisations were recorded and results from two sites showed that groups changed their behaviours after being exposed to humans, and did so in different ways depending on the behaviour of the human model. Results at the site with higher hunting pressure were consistent with predictions based on the threat sensitivity hypothesis. Although results at the site with lower hunting pressure were not consistent with the results at the site with higher hunting pressure, groups at this site also showed differential responses to different human behaviours. These results provide evidence of threat-sensitive predator avoidance in hunted primates, which may allow them to conserve both time and energy when encountering humans which pose no threat.     

Influence of Group Size on the Success of Wolves Hunting Bison

An intriguing aspect of social foraging behaviour is that large groups are often no better at capturing prey than are small groups, a pattern that has been attributed to diminished cooperation (i.e., free riding) in large groups. Although this suggests the formation of large groups is unrelated to prey capture, little is known about cooperation in large groups that hunt hard-to-catch prey. Here, we used direct observations of Yellowstone wolves (Canis lupus) hunting their most formidable prey, bison (Bison bison), to test the hypothesis that large groups are more cooperative when hunting difficult prey. We quantified the relationship between capture success and wolf group size, and compared it to previously reported results for Yellowstone wolves hunting elk (Cervus elaphus), a prey that was, on average, 3 times easier to capture than bison. Whereas improvement in elk capture success levelled off at 2–6 wolves, bison capture success levelled off at 9–13 wolves with evidence that it continued to increase beyond 13 wolves. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that hunters in large groups are more cooperative when hunting more formidable prey. Improved ability to capture formidable prey could therefore promote the formation and maintenance of large predator groups, particularly among predators that specialize on such prey.     

Adults only. Reindeer hunting at the middle palaeolithic site salzgitter lebenstedt, northern Germany

The Middle Palaeolithic site Salzgitter Lebenstedt (northern Germany), excavated in 1952, is well known because of its well-preserved faunal remains, dominated by adult reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). The archaeological assemblage accumulated in an arctic setting in an earlier part of the last (Weichsel) glacial (OIS5-3). The site is remarkable because of the presence of unique Middle Palaeolithic bone tools and the occurrence of the northernmost Neanderthal remains, but this paper focuses on an analysis of its reindeer assemblage. The results indicate autumn hunting of reindeer by Middle Palaeolithic hominids. After the hunt, carcasses were butchered and in subsequent marrow processing of the bones a selection against young and sub-adult animals occurred. Adults were clearly preferred, and from their bones, again, poorer marrow bones were neglected. This focus on primeness of resources has been documented in other domains of Neanderthal behaviour, but Salzgitter Lebenstedt is the best example yet known in terms of systematic and routinized processing of game. The Salzgitter Lebenstedt assemblage displays some remarkable similarities to the Late Glacial reindeer assemblages from the Ahrensburg tunnel valley sites. The subsequent review of the evidence on subsistence strategies from earlier periods of the European Palaeolithic shows that hunting of large mammals may have been a part of the behavioural repertoire of the Middle Pleistocene occupants of Europe from the earliest occupation onwards. At the same time, it is suggested that these early hunting strategies were incorporated in ways of moving through landscapes ("settlement systems") which were different from what we know from the middle parts of the Upper Palaeolithic onwards.     

Lionfish predators use flared fin displays to initiate cooperative hunting

Despite considerable study, mystery surrounds the use of signals that initiate cooperative hunting in animals. Using a labyrinth test chamber, we examined whether a lionfish, Dendrochirus zebra, would initiate cooperative hunts with piscine partners. We found that D. zebra uses a stereotyped flared fin display to alert conspecific and heterospecific lionfish species Pterois antennata to the presence of prey. Per capita success rate was significantly higher for cooperative hunters when compared with solitary ones, with hunt responders assisting hunt initiators in cornering the prey using their large extended pectoral fins. The initiators would most often take the first strike at the group of prey, but both hunters would then alternate striking at the remaining prey. Results suggest that the cooperative communication signal may be characteristic to the lionfish family, as interspecific hunters were equally coordinated and successful as intraspecific hunters. Our findings emphasize the complexity of collaborative foraging behaviours in lionfish; the turn-taking in strikes suggests that individuals do not solely try to maximize their own hunting success: instead they equally share the resources between themselves. Communicative group hunting has enabled Pteroine fish to function as highly efficient predators.     

Steppe bison hunting in the Gravettian of Buda (lower Bistriţa Valley,eastern Romania)

The rich accumulation of bovid remains found at Buda (Bacău County, eastern Romania) is unique among the Upper Palaeolithic sites in the region. The morphological analysis of postcranial remains, which dominate the assemblage by far, shows they belong to Bison priscus, the steppe bison. The body parts representation is biased towards distal limbs, which also display typical butchery cut marks (resulted from disarticulation or skinning) and bone breakage, suggesting the presence of secondary butchery site where limbs were disarticulated and broken for marrow extraction. The assemblage is dominated by adults, mostly females, and includes few sub-adult individuals and no young juveniles. The large number of bison individuals indicates the found remains are the result of a mass killing event representing at least one hunting episode. Considering the age and sex structure of the population, we estimate that the event can be placed during autumn.     

Stable isotopes reveal seasonal competition for resources between late Pleistocene bison (Bison) and horse (Equus) from Rancho La Brea,southern California

Determining how organisms partition or compete for resources within ecosystems can reveal how communities are assembled. The Late Pleistocene deposits at Rancho La Brea are exceptionally diverse in large mammalian carnivores and herbivores, and afford a unique opportunity to study resource use and partitioning among these megafauna. Resource use was examined in bison and horses by serially sampling the stable carbon and oxygen isotope values found within tooth enamel of individual teeth of seven bison and five horses. Oxygen isotope results for both species reveal a pattern of seasonal enamel growth, while carbon isotope values reveal a more subtle seasonal pattern of dietary preferences. Both species ate a diet dominated by C₃ plants, but bison regularly incorporated C₄ plants into their diets, while horses ate C₄ plants only occasionally. Bison had greater total variation in carbon isotope values than did horses implying migration away from Rancho La Brea. Bison appear to incorporate more C₄ plants into their diets during winter, which corresponds to previous studies suggesting that Rancho La Brea, primarily surrounded by C₃ plants, was used by bison only during late spring. The examination of intra-tooth isotopic variation which reveals intra-seasonal resource use among bison and horse at Rancho La Brea highlights the utility of isotopic techniques for understanding the intricacies of ecology within and between ancient mammals.     

Comportements de subsistance au Paléolithique supérieur en Crimée : analyse archéozoologique des couches 6-2, 6-1 et 5-2 de Buran-Kaya III

The rockshelter of Buran-Kaya III (Crimea), found in 1990 by A. Yanevich, presents an exceptional stratigraphic sequence ranging from the Middle Palaeolithic to the Neolithic. The cultural layers yielded abundant assemblages of lithic and bone industries, personal adornments and mobiliary art, several ones made of mammoth ivory. We present here the results of zooarchaeological analyses of the large mammal remains from layers 6-2, 6-1 and 5-2, attributed to Gravettian sensu lato, and their interpretation in terms of subsistence behaviours, by comparing the three assemblages. The faunal composition of the three layers is rather homogeneous. The site settlements seem mainly related to the acquisition and treatment activities of small and middle-sized mammals, especially saiga antelope in summer, and large-sized mammals, in winter in 6-1 and maybe also in 5-2. During Gravettian, Buran-Kaya III was repeatedly used as a butchery or short-termed camp-site, probably in summer for hunts of saiga antelope.     

European Bison as a Refugee Species? Evidence from Isotopic Data on Early Holocene Bison and Other Large Herbivores in Northern Europe

According to the refugee species concept, increasing replacement of open steppe by forest cover after the last glacial period and human pressure had together forced European bison (Bison bonasus)—the largest extant terrestrial mammal of Europe—into forests as a refuge habitat. The consequent decreased fitness and population density led to the gradual extinction of the species. Understanding the pre-refugee ecology of the species may help its conservation management and ensure its long time survival. In view of this, we investigated the abundance of stable isotopes (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N) in radiocarbon dated skeletal remains of European bison and other large herbivores—aurochs (Bos primigenius), moose (Alces alces), and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)—from the Early Holocene of northern Europe to reconstruct their dietary habits and pattern of habitat use in conditions of low human influence. Carbon and nitrogen isotopic compositions in collagen of the ungulate species in northern central Europe during the Early Holocene showed significant differences in the habitat use and the diet of these herbivores. The values of the δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N isotopes reflected the use of open habitats by bison, with their diet intermediate between that of aurochs (grazer) and of moose (browser). Our results show that, despite the partial overlap in carbon and nitrogen isotopic values of some species, Early Holocene large ungulates avoided competition by selection of different habitats or different food sources within similar environments. Although Early Holocene bison and Late Pleistocene steppe bison utilized open habitats, their diets were significantly different, as reflected by their δ¹⁵N values. Additional isotopic analyses show that modern populations of European bison utilize much more forested habitats than Early Holocene bison, which supports the refugee status of the species.     

Mode de vie à Isernia La Pineta (Molise, Italie). Stratégie d’exploitation du Bison schoetensacki par les groupes humains au Paléolithique inférieur

The site of Isernia La Pineta (Molise, Italie) is characterized by the presence of a rich faunal assemblage related to a very abundant lithic industry in several archaeosurfaces dated between 600,000 and 700,000 BP. A specific archaeozoological study has been carried out on Bison schoetensacki specimens that are the most represented taxon in each archaeological level, followed by rhinoceros, elephant, bear and cervid. The quantitative et qualitative analysis of the faunal remains, the age profiles and the identification of anthropic modifications have allowed to better understand the exploitation strategies adopted by humans in the site and to underline a selective hunting of population of bison, related to the age of the individuals.     

The cost of migratory prey: seasonal changes in semi‐domestic reindeer distribution influences breeding success of Eurasian lynx in northern Norway

Migratory prey is a widespread phenomenon that has implications for predator–prey interactions. By creating large temporal variation in resource availability between seasons it becomes challenging for carnivores to secure a regular year‐round supply of food. Some predators may respond by following their migratory prey, however, most predators are sedentary and experience strong seasonal variation in resource availability. Increased predation on alternative prey may dampen such seasonal resource fluctuations, but reduced reproduction rates in predators is a predicted consequence of migratory primary prey behavior that has received little empirical attention. We used data from 23 GPS collared Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx monitored during 2007–2013 in northern Norway, to examine how spatio‐temporal variation in the migratory behavior of semi‐domestic reindeer Rangifer tarandus influences lynx spatial organization and reproductive success using estimates of seasonal home range overlap and breeding success. We found that lynx of both sexes maintained seasonally stable home ranges and exhibited site fidelity across years, independent of whether they had access to reindeer throughout the year or experienced a scarcity of reindeer in winter due to migration. However, lynx without access to reindeer in winter showed a decreased probability of reproducing and a tendency for lowered kitten survival into their first winter, when compared to female lynx with reindeer available year around. This supports the hypothesis that sedentary predators experience demographic costs in systems with migratory primary prey. Changes in the migratory behavior of ungulates, including disrupted migrations, is therefore likely to have bottom–up effects on the population dynamics of sedentary predators as well as the previously documented consequences for ungulate population dynamics.     

Experimental study on the effect of diet on fatty acid and stable isotope profiles of the squid Lolliguncula brevis

Fatty acid and stable isotope analyses have previously been used to investigate foraging patterns of fish, birds, marine mammals and most recently cephalopod species. To evaluate the application of these methods for dietary studies in squid, it is important to understand the degree to which fatty acid and stable isotope signatures of prey species are reflected in the squids' tissue. Four groups of Lolliguncula brevis were fed on prey species with distinctly different fatty acid and stable isotope profiles over 30 consecutive days. One group of squid were fed fish for fifteen days, followed by crustaceans for a further fifteen days. A second and third group were fed exclusively on fish or crustaceans for thirty days. And a fourth group was fed on a mixture of fish and crustaceans for thirty days. Analysis of squid tissue showed that, after 10 days of feeding, fatty acid profiles of squid tended to reflect those of their prey. Squid that fed on a single prey type, i.e. fish or crustacean, showed only minor modifications in fatty acid proportions after the initial change and fatty acid profiles were clearly distinguishable between the two feeding groups. Shifts in fatty acid proportions towards respective prey profiles could clearly be observed in squid the diet of which was swapped after 15 days. Clear differences could also be seen in fatty acid profiles of squid feeding on a mixed diet with trends towards either fish or crustacean fatty acid signatures. Stable isotope signatures of squid tissues clearly distinguished between animals feeding on different diets and supported findings from fatty acid analysis, thus indicating both methods to be viable tools in feeding studies on squid species.     

The use of stable isotope ratios in whitebait otolith carbonate to identify the source of prey for Western Australian penguins

A methodology has been developed and used to investigate a direct link between juvenile whitebait (Hyperlophus vittatus), the key prey species sampled from the stomachs of Little Penguins (Eudyptula minor), and the specific nursery area of that prey. A unique application of existing methodology initially involved the measurement of the stable isotopes of oxygen (δ¹⁸O:δ¹⁶O) and carbon (δ¹³C:δ¹²C) in sagittal otolith carbonate, using standard mass spectrometric techniques. The results indicated that the inshore distribution of juvenile (0+ year old) whitebait between Cockburn Sound and Koombana Bay, Western Australia consisted of a number of separate assemblages. Measured differences in stable oxygen isotope ratios were attributed to variations in freshwater input to the embayments that provided the whitebait habitats. In contrast, the measured stable carbon isotope ratios probably resulted from the different isotopic compositions of the food webs in the various habitats. Secondly, a comparison of the average value of carbon and oxygen isotope signatures of pooled otoliths from samples of whitebait from a number of different nearshore coastal sites (assemblages), with that of whitebait obtained from the stomachs of penguins at their main breeding site (Penguin Island) indicated that the values from the penguins resemble most closely those of the average otolith values obtained from whitebait from only one site (Becher Point). Assuming that the whitebait sampled were representative of the whitebait in the nearshore habitats and the diets of the penguins, then these results imply that at the time of sampling the penguins were feeding on whitebait from only one site.     

Seasonal variation in terrestrial resource subsidies influences trophic niche width and overlap in two aquatic snake species: a stable isotope approach

Quantifying diet is essential for understanding the functional role of species with regard to energy processing, transfer, and storage within ecosystems. Recently, variance structure in the stable isotope composition of consumer tissues has been touted as a robust tool for quantifying trophic niche width, a task that has previously proven difficult due to bias in direct dietary analyses and difficulties in integrating diet composition over time. We used carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analyses to examine trophic niche width of two sympatric aquatic snakes, banded watersnakes Nerodia fasciata and black swamp snakes Seminatrix pygaea inhabiting an isolated wetland where seasonal migrations of amphibian prey cause dramatic shifts in resource availability. Specifically, we characterized snake and prey isotope compositions through time, space, and ontogeny and examined isotope values in relation to prey availability and snake diets assessed by gut content analysis. We determined that prey cluster into functional groups based on similarity of isotopic composition and seasonal availability. Isotope variance structure indicated that the trophic niche width of the banded watersnake was broader (more generalist) than that of the black swamp snake. Banded watersnakes also exhibited seasonal variation in isotope composition, suggesting seasonal diet shifts that track amphibian prey availability. Conversely, black swamp snakes exhibited little seasonal variation but displayed strong ontogenetic shifts in carbon and nitrogen isotope composition that closely paralleled ontogenetic shifts in their primary prey, paedomorphic mole salamanders Ambystoma talpoideum. Although niche dimensions are often treated as static, our results demonstrate that seasonal shifts in niche dimensions can lead to changes in niche overlap between sympatric species. Such short‐term fluctuations in niche overlap can influence competitive interactions and consequently the composition and dynamics of communities and ecosystems.     

From carcass to cave: large mammal exploitation during the Aurignacian at Vogelherd, Germany

Recent results from the zooarchaeological analysis of faunal remains from Vogelherd Cave, southwestern Germany, provide new insight into the subsistence behavior of early modern human groups during the Aurignacian. The results presented here represent the first comprehensive study of the archaeofauna from this site. Several episodes of occupation are inferred at this site, taking place primarily between 31 and 32 ka. Although a wide spectrum of Pleistocene mammals is represented in the Aurignacian at Vogelherd, reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) and horse (Equus ferus) were the primary prey taxa, and they are the most appropriate data sets with which to understand human subsistence on an intrasite level. Hunting of both taxa took place during the late summer and fall, coinciding with reindeer migrations and local abundance of horses. Complete or nearly complete prey carcasses were then transported from the kill locations to the cave for processing. This study shows that Vogelherd was a preferred locale of Aurignacian groups for a broad range of activities, including the time- and labor-intensive exploitation of ungulate prey for meat, marrow, and fat resources, as well as the production and maintenance of artifacts such as figurative artwork, personal ornaments, bone and ivory armatures, and lithic tools. With its rich faunal and artifact assemblages, the Aurignacian deposit at Vogelherd provides a wealth of information on this critical period of the early Upper Paleolithic, when cultural innovations were flourishing.     

Cannibalistic interactions in two co-occurring decapod species: Effects of density, food, alternative prey and habitat

Cannibalism is a potentially important factor in the regulation of populations in a range of habitats. The intensity of this biotic factor may be determined by both intra and interspecific interactions. Cancer pagurus and Porcellana platycheles are two co-occurring decapods on Atlantic rocky shores. In laboratory mesocosms, we investigated intra and intersize class cannibalistic and interspecific predatory behaviours in those species. We addressed the effects of prey and predator densities, food, starvation, alternative prey and habitat type. No agonistic behaviour was noted in P. platycheles, suggesting a non-aggressive co-existence between gregarious individuals. Predation of C. pagurus on P. platycheles was intense, possibly accounting for the spatial segregation observed in the natural environment. Cannibalism among C. pagurus juveniles was low and only on vulnerable prey (i.e. at moulting), suggesting a non-aggressive co-existence among juveniles. However, intersize class cannibalism in C. pagurus was intense (ontogenetic shift), possibly reflecting the juvenile-adult segregation in the natural environment. Prey and predator densities, food and habitat type strongly influenced this behaviour. Possible interference among cannibals was noted, with lower prey consumption at high predator density. Food supply alone had more effect on cannibalistic rate than did alternative prey (P. platycheles) and predator starvation. Structurally complex habitats (small pebble and Fucus serratus habitats) yielded higher prey survival than the sandy habitat, and the behaviours of both prey and cannibals reflected the small-scale spatial distribution of individuals in the wild. Intersize class cannibalism and interspecific agonistic relationships may account for the intertidal distribution of crab species at low tide.     

Dietary Dependence of Predatory Arthropods on Volant Aquatic Insects in Tropical Stream Riparia

The dietary dependence on volant aquatic insects of eight species of predatory arthropods from three different orders was determined by stable isotope analyses in combination with three‐source, two‐isotope (C and N) Bayesian mixing models. The predators were collected from riparian zones along three streams in tropical Hong Kong during both the wet and dry seasons. Dietary importance of aquatic insects varied according to predator hunting modes, and showed a consistent pattern across all sites during the wet season. The web‐building tetragnathid spider (Orsinome diporusa) had the greatest reliance (~40–55%) on this water‐to‐land subsidy, followed by two species of damselflies (40–50%), three cursorial spiders (Lycosidae, Pisauridae, and Sparassidae: 32–51%) and two neustic gerrids (17–36%). Such reliance also varied according to the microhabitat preferences of different cursorial spiders. Four species of predators (gerrids and cursorial spiders) that were active year‐round showed generally consistent reliance on aquatic insects between seasons, which probably reflected the observed lack of seasonal variability in the relative proportions of aquatic and terrestrial prey. There was a marked overlap in isotopic signatures of aquatic and terrestrial prey at all sites which, combined with the absence of data on the extent to which isotopic fractionations may vary among individual species of prey and predators, contributes some uncertainty to the estimates of dietary compositions derived by mixing models. The findings of the present study are thus likely to be indicative rather than definitive.