Cbl-b Is a Novel Physiologic Regulator of Glycoprotein VI-dependent Platelet Activation

Cbl-b, a member of the Cbl family of E3 ubiquitin ligases, plays an important role in the activation of lymphocytes. However, its function in platelets remains unknown. We show that Cbl-b is expressed in human platelets along with c-Cbl, but in contrast to c-Cbl, it is not tyrosine-phosphorylated upon glycoprotein VI (GPVI) stimulation. Cbl-b, unlike c-Cbl, is not required for Syk ubiquitylation downstream of GPVI activation. Phospholipase Cγ2 (PLCγ2) and Bruton''s tyrosine kinase (BTK) are constituently associated with Cbl-b. Cbl-b-deficient (Cbl-b^−/−) platelets display an inhibition in the concentration-response curve for GPVI-specific agonist-induced aggregation, secretion, and Ca²⁺ mobilization. A parallel inhibition is found for activation of PLCγ2 and BTK. However, Syk activation is not affected by the absence of Cbl-b, indicating that Cbl-b acts downstream of Syk but upstream of BTK and PLCγ2. When Cbl-b^−/− mice were tested in the ferric chloride thrombosis model, occlusion time was increased and clot stability was reduced compared with wild type controls. These data indicate that Cbl-b plays a positive modulatory role in GPVI-dependent platelet signaling, which translates to an important regulatory role in hemostasis and thrombosis in vivo.     

Major Role of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor and Src Kinases in Promoting Oxidative Stress-dependent Loss of Adhesion and Apoptosis in Epithelial Cells

A growing body of evidence suggests that reactive oxygen species are critical components of cell signaling pathways, in particular regulating protein phosphorylation events. Here, we show that oxidative stress in response to hydrogen peroxide treatment of human epithelial cells induces robust tyrosine phosphorylation on multiple proteins. Using an anti-phosphotyrosine purification and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry approach, we have identified many of these H₂O₂-induced tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins. Importantly, we show that epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and Src are the primary upstream kinases mediating these events through their redox activation. The finding that many of the identified proteins have functions in cell adhesion, cell-cell junctions, and the actin cytoskeleton prompted us to examine stress-induced changes in adhesion. Immunofluorescence analysis showed that H₂O₂ alters cell adhesion structures and the actin cytoskeleton causing loss of adhesion and apoptosis. Remarkably, these cellular changes could be attenuated by inhibition of EGFR and Src, identifying these kinases as targets to block oxidative damage. In summary, our data demonstrate that EGFR and Src together play a central role in oxidative stress-induced phosphorylation, which in turn results in loss of adhesion, morphological changes, and cell damage in epithelial cells. These data also provide a general model for redox signaling in other cell systems.     

ERK Nuclear Translocation Is Dimerization-independent but Controlled by the Rate of Phosphorylation

Upon activation, ERKs translocate from the cytoplasm to the nucleus. This process is required for the induction of many cellular responses, yet the molecular mechanisms that regulate ERK nuclear translocation are not fully understood. We have used a mouse embryo fibroblast ERK1-knock-out cell line expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged ERK1 to probe the spatio-temporal regulation of ERK1. Real time fluorescence microscopy and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy revealed that ERK1 nuclear accumulation increased upon serum stimulation, but the mobility of the protein in the nucleus and cytoplasm remained unchanged. Dimerization of ERK has been proposed as a requirement for nuclear translocation. However, ERK1-Δ4, the mutant shown consistently to be dimerization-deficient in vitro, accumulated in the nucleus to the same level as wild type (WT), indicating that dimerization of ERK1 is not required for nuclear entry and retention. Consistent with this finding, energy migration Förster resonance energy transfer and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy measurements in living cells did not detect dimerization of GFP-ERK1-WT upon activation. In contrast, the kinetics of nuclear accumulation and phosphorylation of GFP-ERK1-Δ4 were slower than that of GFP-ERK1-WT. These results indicate that the differential shuttling behavior of the mutant is a consequence of delayed phosphorylation of ERK by MEK rather than dimerization. Our data demonstrate for the first time that a delay in cytoplasmic activation of ERK is directly translated into a delay in nuclear translocation.     

Lysyl Oxidase Propeptide Inhibits FGF-2-induced Signaling and Proliferation of Osteoblasts

Pro-lysyl oxidase is secreted as a 50-kDa proenzyme and is then cleaved to a 30-kDa mature enzyme (lysyl oxidase (LOX)) and an 18-kDa propeptide (lysyl oxidase propeptide (LOX-PP)). The presence of LOX-PP in the cell layers of phenotypically normal osteoblast cultures led us to investigate the effects of LOX-PP on osteoblast differentiation. Data indicate that LOX-PP inhibits terminal mineralization in primary calvaria osteoblast cultures when added at early stages of differentiation, with no effects seen when present at later stages. LOX-PP was found to inhibit serum- and FGF-2-stimulated DNA synthesis and FGF-2-stimulated cell growth. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and Western blot analyses show that LOX-PP inhibits FGF-2-induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation, signaling events that mediate the FGF-2-induced proliferative response. LOX-PP inhibits FGF-2-stimulated phosphorylation of FRS2α and FGF-2-stimulated DNA synthesis, even after inhibition of sulfation of heparan sulfate proteoglycans. These data point to a LOX-PP target at or near the level of fibroblast growth factor receptor binding or activation. Ligand binding assays on osteoblast cell layers with ¹²⁵I-FGF-2 demonstrate a concentration-dependent inhibition of FGF-2 binding to osteoblasts by LOX-PP. In vitro binding assays with recombinant fibroblast growth factor receptor protein revealed that LOX-PP inhibits FGF-2 binding in an uncompetitive manner. We propose a working model for the respective roles of LOX enzyme and LOX-PP in osteoblast phenotype development in which LOX-PP may act to inhibit the proliferative response possibly to allow cells to exit from the cell cycle and progress to the next stages of differentiation.