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1.
Fernanda Alves‐Martins Joaquín Calatayud Nagore G. Medina Paulo De Marco Leandro Juen Joaquín Hortal 《Insect Conservation and Diversity》2019,12(3):251-261
- Large Amazonian rivers may act as dispersal barriers for animals with low dispersal abilities, limiting their distribution to certain interfluves. Consequently, the distribution of these taxa would be less affected by macroclimatic gradients. Conversely, high‐dispersal taxa would be less constrained by large rivers and may track suitable climates.
- We evaluate whether Zygoptera and Anisoptera, two Odonata suborders with different dispersal abilities, show differences in distribution patterns across Amazonian interfluves. We further assess the relative importance of macroclimatic and habitat factors in their community assembly.
- We used network modularity analyses to identify biogeographic species pools and spatial buffers to define metacommunity species pools. Then, we used structural equation models to estimate the relative importance of multi‐scale factors on species richness patterns.
- Zygoptera communities are more similar in species composition within than between interfluves, suggesting that large Amazonian rivers indeed limit the distribution of Zygoptera species. Conversely, the distribution of Anisoptera extends across Amazonian interfluves. Seasonality has a strong positive effect on Zygoptera and Anisoptera richness across scales. In addition, habitat integrity is negatively correlated with the regional species richness and abundance of Anisoptera and positively correlated with Zygoptera local richness.
- The contrasting effects of habitat integrity on Anisoptera and Zygoptera suggest that the former is favored in open habitats, whereas the latter is so in forests. Despite these differences, both suborders appear to follow similar community assembly mechanisms in Amazonia, with a strong climatic control across scales and an effect of habitat filters on local communities.
2.
Gilad Bino Skye Wassens Richard T. Kingsford Rachael F. Thomas Jennifer Spencer 《Freshwater Biology》2018,63(2):224-241
- Ecological networks are a cornerstone of ecological theory, offering an integrated approach to understanding food webs and ecosystem dynamics required for restoration and conservation ecology.
- We investigated ecological network dynamics in a large floodplain undergoing extreme variation in water availability, with drought and subsequent flooding representing a resource pulse. We used structural equation models to quantify ecological network dynamics for the Lowbidgee floodplain (Australia), based on surveys over 5 years while the floodplain transitioned from extremely dry (2009, 2010) to wet (2011) and post‐wet (2013, 2014) conditions.
- We identified significant associations of species and trophic guilds with inundation at the site and floodplain scale, which allowed us to quantify the strength of biotic interactions within the network and the stability of interactions under differing patterns of resource availability. At the floodplain scale, most taxa responded strongly in distribution and abundance to the 2011 resource pulse, a widespread flood, but this response did not persist during subsequent years of moderate floods. In contrast, fish species, both native and exotic, responded strongly only in the post‐wet period. At the fine spatial scale (i.e., sites), complex responses were observed, with only waterbirds, frogs and tadpoles positively associated with inundation, while fish species showed a range of associations with fine‐scale inundation. Biotic interactions within sites, across all trophic guilds, were predominately overridden by inundation and water temperature, mediated by strong associations with aquatic vegetation.
- Stratifying the ecological network to dry, wet and post‐wet periods highlighted varying associations of taxa with fine‐scale inundation, generally responding synchronously to resource pulses, with relatively weak biotic interactions. Associations with site‐scale inundation were strongest during the post‐wet period for fishes and frogs. Only Litoria spp. (Hylidae) tadpoles, waterbirds and aquatic vegetation had positive associations with site‐scale inundation during the dry period.
- We conclude that responses of trophic guilds are largely dependent on the way they interact with their environment at particular spatial and temporal scales. Our investigation of this ecological network reinforced the importance of hydrological drivers over biotic interactions, with clear implications for the management of environmental flows, particularly in systems recovering from long‐term flow alteration. Management efforts should focus environmental flows to promote specialist species (e.g., southern bell frog, Litoria raniformis) and Murray hardyhead (Craterocephalus fluviatilis: Atherinidae), waterbirds and aquatic vegetation over the more generalist fish species that have established because of the loss of the natural flow regime.
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Oceanic islands are good model systems with which to explore factors affecting exotic species diversity. Islands vary in size, topography, substrate type, degree of isolation, native species diversity, history, human population characteristics, and economic development. Moreover, islands are highly vulnerable to exotic species establishment. We used AICc analyses of data on 1132 vascular plant species for 15 countries and 114 islands from the Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER) project to examine biological, geographical, and socioeconomic correlates of exotic species richness. PIER provides data on the distribution of naturalized non-native plant species thought to pose environmental or economic risk. We hypothesized that the numbers of PIER-listed species would be positively correlated with island size, habitat diversity, and proximity to major source pools for propagules. Further, we expected numbers of PIER-listed exotic species to be similar among islands in the same country and to be greater where human populations were larger and where economic activity was high. Most species (908) were found on ≤ 10 islands. Species number was significantly correlated with island and country areas and with native plant species richness. The strongest model revealed by AICc analyses of island data included log (area) and maximum elevation as well as country membership, substrate type, and presence of an airport with paved runway (an index of economic activity). By country, AICc analyses revealed two equivalent models, both of which included log (area) and per capita gross domestic product as well as a measure of population size (either log (population size) or (population density)). Our analyses provide strong evidence of the roles of biogeographic, environmental, and socioeconomic impacts on the distribution and spread of exotic species. 相似文献
4.
Thomas De Solan Ian Renner Marc Cheylan Philippe Geniez Jean‐Yves Barnagaud 《Ecography》2019,42(3):608-620
Although classified among the greatest threats to the world's biodiversity, the effects of land use and their scale dependency are left unexplored in many taxonomic groups. Reptiles are among the most data‐deficient vertebrates in this respect, although their ecological traits make them highly sensitive to habitat modifications. We tested whether land use gradients shape the distributions of Mediterranean reptiles at regional and local scales, and whether species’ ecological traits and phylogeny explain these patterns. Reptiles are generally rare and hard to survey through standardized protocols. We overcame these obstacles by modeling an original data set of 18164 opportunistic occurrence records for 14 reptile species with spatially‐explicit point process models incorporating known sources of sampling heterogeneity and spatially autocorrelated error. At a regional scale, reptiles favored open habitats and tended to avoid urban areas. At a local scale, the persistence of open habitats did better than forest resulting from land abandonment in maintaining reptiles within a heavily anthropogenic matrix. Contrary to our expectations, the absence of any clear trait or phylogenetic signals suggests that these responses are mediated by a complex interplay between species’ ecology and regional biogeographic history. These results demonstrate that reptile responses to land use are scale‐dependent and locally exacerbated when anthropogenic pressure is high. We further show that land abandonment is insufficient to preserve reptiles in the face of anthropogenic pressures unless patches of suitable habitat are effectively maintained. Eventually, our study further illustrates the effectiveness of volunteer‐based opportunistic sampling in testing hypotheses on the determinants of rare species’ distributions. 相似文献
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Hideyuki Doi Atsushi Takagi Chitoshi Mizota Jun‐ichi Okano Shin‐ichi Nakano Eisuke Kikuchi 《International Review of Hydrobiology》2006,91(6):501-508
We estimated the food sources of macroinvertebrates using carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur stable isotopes in a headwater stream. Stream food webs, including macroinvertebrates, rely on production from autochthonous and allochthonous photosynthesis. We found that a freshwater grazer, the snail Semisulcospira libertina, may assimilate different food sources, based on stable carbon and nitrogen isotope evidence from snail muscle and the much lighter sulfur isotope signature than those of other associated macroinvertebrates. Previous studies have shown the importance of methanotrophic and sulfur bacteria in reductive environments (clay and organic‐rich sediments) as food sources for macroinvertebrates. Our results show that the production by chemoautotrophic bacteria contributes to the food sources of a snail in a stream. Thus, the chemoautotrophic bacteria are important in the freshwater food webs, even in mostly aerobic habitats. (© 2006 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim) 相似文献
6.
Lloyd W. Morrison 《Diversity & distributions》2005,11(6):517-524
Very small islands, on the order of a few hundred square metres in area, have rarely been the focus of ecological investigations. I sampled nine such islands in the central Exumas, Bahamas for arthropod species abundance and diversity using a combination of pitfall traps, pan traps and sticky traps. Three islands had no terrestrial vegetation, three islands contained only Sesuvium portulacastrum L., a salt‐tolerant perennial that had been experimentally introduced 10 years ago, and three islands supported one or two naturally occurring plant species. A relatively diverse arthropod assemblage was discovered, including representatives of 10 different orders of Crustacea and Insecta. Land hermit crabs were the most abundant crustaceans, and dipterans were the most abundant and speciose insects. Two of the most common insects were previously undescribed species. Measures of arthropod species abundance and diversity were not significantly different for vegetated vs. non‐vegetated islands. All 10 orders were present on bare islands, and nine of them were present on vegetated islands. Measures of arthropod species abundance and diversity were positively associated with island area, and negatively associated with distance from the nearest large island. Hypothesized food webs consist of several trophic levels and have strong allochthonous inputs. Tiny islands such as these hold insights into early successional processes and the base of insular food webs. 相似文献
7.
When observing data on a patient-reported outcome measure in, for example, clinical trials, the variables observed are often correlated and intended to measure a latent variable. In addition, such data are also often characterized by a hierarchical structure, meaning that the outcome is repeatedly measured within patients. To analyze such data, it is important to use an appropriate statistical model, such as structural equation modeling (SEM). However, researchers may rely on simpler statistical models that are applied to an aggregated data structure. For example, correlated variables are combined into one sum score that approximates a latent variable. This may have implications when, for example, the sum score consists of indicators that relate differently to the latent variable being measured. This study compares three models that can be applied to analyze such data: the multilevel multiple indicators multiple causes (ML-MIMIC) model, a univariate multilevel model, and a mixed analysis of variance (ANOVA) model. The focus is on the estimation of a cross-level interaction effect that presents the difference over time on the patient-reported outcome between two treatment groups. The ML-MIMIC model is an SEM-type model that considers the relationship between the indicators and the latent variable in a multilevel setting, whereas the univariate multilevel and mixed ANOVA model rely on sum scores to approximate the latent variable. In addition, the mixed ANOVA model uses aggregated second-level means as outcome. This study showed that the ML-MIMIC model produced unbiased cross-level interaction effect estimates when the relationships between the indicators and the latent variable being measured varied across indicators. In contrast, under similar conditions, the univariate multilevel and mixed ANOVA model underestimated the cross-level interaction effect. 相似文献
8.
Soil carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles are strongly interlinked and controlled through biological processes, and the phosphorus cycle is further controlled through geochemical processes. In dryland ecosystems, woody encroachment often modifies soil carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus stores, although it remains unknown if these three elements change proportionally in response to this vegetation change. We evaluated proportional changes and spatial patterns of soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorus (TP) concentrations following woody encroachment by taking spatially explicit soil cores to a depth of 1.2 m across a subtropical savanna landscape which has undergone encroachment by Prosopis glandulosa (an N2 fixer) and other woody species during the past century in southern Texas, USA. SOC and TN were coupled with respect to increasing magnitudes and spatial patterns throughout the soil profile following woody encroachment, while TP increased slower than SOC and TN in topmost surface soils (0–5 cm) but faster in subsurface soils (15–120 cm). Spatial patterns of TP strongly resembled those of vegetation cover throughout the soil profile, but differed from those of SOC and TN, especially in subsurface soils. The encroachment of woody species dominated by N2‐fixing trees into this P‐limited ecosystem resulted in the accumulation of proportionally less soil P compared to C and N in surface soils; however, proportionally more P accrued in deeper portions of the soil profile beneath woody patches where alkaline soil pH and high carbonate concentrations would favor precipitation of P as relatively insoluble calcium phosphates. This imbalanced relationship highlights that the relative importance of biotic vs. abiotic mechanisms controlling C and N vs. P accumulation following vegetation change may vary with depth. Our findings suggest that efforts to incorporate effects of land cover changes into coupled climate–biogeochemical models should attempt to represent C‐N‐P imbalances that may arise following vegetation change. 相似文献
9.
Daniel B. Stouffer 《Functional ecology》2010,24(1):44-51
1. Food webs, the set of predator–prey interactions in an ecosystem, are a prototypical complex system. Much research to date has concentrated on the use of models to identify and explain the key structural features which characterize food webs.
2. These models often fall into two general categories: (i) phenomenological models which are built upon a set of heuristic rules in order to explain some empirical observation and (ii) population-level models in which interactions between individuals result in emergent properties for the food web. Both types of models have helped to uncover how food-web structure is a product of factors such as foraging behaviour, prey selection and species' body sizes.
3. Historically, the two types of models have followed rather different approaches to the problem. Despite the apparent differences, the overlap between the two styles of models is substantial. Examples are highlighted here.
4. By paying greater attention to both the similarities and differences between the two, we will be better able to demonstrate the ecological insights offered by phenomenological models. This will help us, for example, design experiments which could validate or refute underlying assumptions of the models. By linking models to data, scaling from individuals to networks, we will be closer to understanding the true origins of food-web structure. 相似文献
2. These models often fall into two general categories: (i) phenomenological models which are built upon a set of heuristic rules in order to explain some empirical observation and (ii) population-level models in which interactions between individuals result in emergent properties for the food web. Both types of models have helped to uncover how food-web structure is a product of factors such as foraging behaviour, prey selection and species' body sizes.
3. Historically, the two types of models have followed rather different approaches to the problem. Despite the apparent differences, the overlap between the two styles of models is substantial. Examples are highlighted here.
4. By paying greater attention to both the similarities and differences between the two, we will be better able to demonstrate the ecological insights offered by phenomenological models. This will help us, for example, design experiments which could validate or refute underlying assumptions of the models. By linking models to data, scaling from individuals to networks, we will be closer to understanding the true origins of food-web structure. 相似文献
10.
Tyler Ripku;Lauren Hayhurst;Chris D. Metcalfe;Michael Rennie; 《Journal of fish biology》2024,105(5):1432-1444
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are added as antibacterial and anti-odor agents to a wide range of textiles, with high potential for release into aquatic environments via domestic wastewater. Previous work demonstrating the negative impacts of AgNP exposure on periphyton production suggests benthic primary production could be reduced in aquatic ecosystems impacted by AgNP discharge. To evaluate the potential for AgNPs to alter benthic–pelagic coupling in aquatic ecosystems, tissue-stable isotope ratios of carbon and nitrogen from northern pike (Esox lucius) and yellow perch (Perca flavescens) were measured before, during, and after the addition of AgNPs to a whole-lake ecosystem, and compared to those collected from a nearby reference lake. A shift in carbon isotope ratios toward more negative values was observed in both P. flavescens and E. lucius collected from the lake where AgNPs were added, with no shift in similar magnitude observed in E. lucius from the reference lake. Consequently, Bayesian estimates of benthic energy consumed decreased by 32% for P. flavescens and by 40% for E. lucius collected after AgNP additions relative to pre-addition estimates, greater in magnitude or opposite in direction of trends observed in our reference lake. Analyses suggest no changes in fish nitrogen isotope ratios related to AgNP additions. We hypothesize that the observed reduction in littoral energy use of fish reported here is a response to AgNP settling in littoral benthic habitats—the main habitat in lakes supporting periphyton—as AgNP has been shown elsewhere to significantly reduce the rates of periphyton production. Further, our study highlights the need to broaden the scope of risk assessments for AgNPs and other emerging contaminants prone to settling to consider habitat-specific impacts on resource utilization by organisms after their release into aquatic ecosystems. 相似文献
11.
The Pinus halepensis Mill. forest vegetation of the central-eastern European Mediterranean basin (France, Italy, Croatia, Albania, Greece) is described here. This study was carried out considering published and unpublished phytosociological data, with the organisation of a systematic classification (syntaxonomic scheme) of the order Pinetalia halepensis according to the principal floristic variations, at multiple spatial scales and according to the physiognomic–structural, floristic, ecological and biogeographical characteristics. Five alliances and 25 associations are recognised. 相似文献
12.
Predators tend to be large and mobile, enabling them to forage in spatially distinct food web compartments (e.g. littoral and pelagic aquatic macrohabitats). This feature can stabilise ecosystems when predators are capable of rapid behavioural response to changing resource conditions in distinct habitat compartments. However, what provides this ability to respond behaviourally has not been quantified. We hypothesised that predators require increased cognitive abilities to occupy their position in a food web, which puts pressure to increase brain size. Consistent with food web theory, we found that fish relative brain size increased with increased ability to forage across macrohabitats and increased relative trophic positions in a lacustrine food web, indicating that larger brains may afford the cognitive capacity to exploit various habitats flexibly, thus contributing to the stability of whole food webs. 相似文献
13.
Kamilar JM Muldoon KM Lehman SM Herrera JP 《American journal of physical anthropology》2012,147(3):401-408
We tested four major hypotheses on the ecological aspects of body mass variation in extant Malagasy strepsirrhines: thermoregulation, resource seasonality/scarcity, resource quality, and primary productivity. These biogeographic hypotheses focus on the ecological aspects of body mass variation, largely ignoring the role of phylogeny for explaining body mass variation within lineages. We tested the independent effects of climate and resource-related variables on variation in body mass among Malagasy primates using recently developed comparative methods that account for phylogenetic history and spatial autocorrelation. We extracted data on lemur body mass and climate variables for a total of 43 species from 39 sites. Climatic data were obtained from the WorldClim database, which is based on climate data from weather stations compiled around the world. Using generalized linear models that incorporate parameters to account for phylogenetic and spatial autocorrelation, we found that diet and climate variables were weak predictors of lemur body mass. Moreover, there was a strong phylogenetic effect relative to the effects of space on lemur body mass in all models. Thus, we failed to find support for any of the four hypotheses on patterns of geography and body mass in extant strepsirrhines. Our results indicate that body mass has been conserved since early in the evolutionary history of each genus, while species diversified into different environmental niches. Our findings are in contrast to some previous studies that have suggested resource and climate related effects on body mass, though these studies have examined this question at different taxonomic and/or geographic scales. 相似文献
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Mattia Sacc Alison J. Blyth William F. Humphreys Steven J. B. Cooper Andrew D. Austin Josephine Hyde Debashish Mazumder Quan Hua Nicole E. White Kliti Grice 《Ecology and evolution》2020,10(16):8815-8826
Food web dynamics are vital in shaping the functional ecology of ecosystems. However, trophic ecology is still in its infancy in groundwater ecosystems due to the cryptic nature of these environments. To unravel trophic interactions between subterranean biota, we applied an interdisciplinary Bayesian mixing model design (multi‐factor BMM) based on the integration of faunal C and N bulk tissue stable isotope data (δ13C and δ15N) with radiocarbon data (Δ14C), and prior information from metagenomic analyses. We further compared outcomes from multi‐factor BMM with a conventional isotope double proxy mixing model (SIA BMM), triple proxy (δ13C, δ15N, and Δ14C, multi‐proxy BMM), and double proxy combined with DNA prior information (SIA + DNA BMM) designs. Three species of subterranean beetles (Paroster macrosturtensis, Paroster mesosturtensis, and Paroster microsturtensis) and their main prey items Chiltoniidae amphipods (AM1: Scutachiltonia axfordi and AM2: Yilgarniella sturtensis), cyclopoids and harpacticoids from a calcrete in Western Australia were targeted. Diet estimations from stable isotope only models (SIA BMM) indicated homogeneous patterns with modest preferences for amphipods as prey items. Multi‐proxy BMM suggested increased—and species‐specific—predatory pressures on amphipods coupled with high rates of scavenging/predation on sister species. SIA + DNA BMM showed marked preferences for amphipods AM1 and AM2, and reduced interspecific scavenging/predation on Paroster species. Multi‐factorial BMM revealed the most precise estimations (lower overall SD and very marginal beetles' interspecific interactions), indicating consistent preferences for amphipods AM1 in all the beetles' diets. Incorporation of genetic priors allowed crucial refining of the feeding preferences, while integration of more expensive radiocarbon data as a third proxy (when combined with genetic data) produced more precise outcomes but close dietary reconstruction to that from SIA + DNA BMM. Further multidisciplinary modeling from other groundwater environments will help elucidate the potential behind these designs and bring light to the feeding ecology of one the most vital ecosystems worldwide. 相似文献
18.
Francisco Villamarín Timothy D. Jardine Stuart E. Bunn Boris Marioni William E. Magnusson 《Freshwater Biology》2017,62(8):1389-1400
- The structure of food webs may be strongly influenced by the distribution of top predators in space and time. The Amazon biome is the only region in the world where four alligatorid species are known to occur in sympatry, and they attain high densities in some regions. As top predators with a diverse range of prey species occupying different trophic levels, their impact upon food webs should be substantial, but the degree to which crocodilians differ in their food sources, and potentially avoid competitive exclusion where they occur syntopically is not well understood.
- Although most crocodilians are considered generalist opportunistic predators that feed on any source of protein available in the environment, Amazonian crocodilians show broad differences in the proportions of prey items they consume. It is believed that these differences may in part reflect habitat use, but it is unknown to what extent they represent interspecific differences in prey preferences or are a direct function of habitat selection.
- Stable carbon isotope data (δ13C) of crocodilians and their potential prey were used to assess differences in reliance on terrestrial versus aquatic resources. These data were then placed in a spatial context using classified maps that reflect habitat types (headwater streams, mid‐order flooded‐forest streams and várzea floodplains) to elucidate whether dietary differences are explained by habitat selection or are more likely a reflection of prey preferences.
- We found evidence for differences in types of basal resources supporting these crocodilians. Mean δ13C values were highest in Paleosuchus trigonatus (Schneider's dwarf caiman, ?25.7 ± 1.2‰), intermediate in Caiman crocodilus (spectacled caiman, ?27.4 ± 1.2‰) and Paleosuchus palpebrosus (Cuvier's dwarf caiman, ?27.7 ± 1.1‰) and lowest in Melanosuchus niger (black caiman, ?29.9 ± 1.3‰).
- A progressive decrease in δ13C values of crocodilian tissues occurred from headwaters to floodplains, which most likely reflects a progressive increase in autochthonous over allochthonous inputs in lower reaches of streams. The shift from terrestrial to aquatic resources sustaining these sympatric predators mirrors their spatial distribution along this ecotone. However, after taking into account the habitat in which pairs of syntopic individuals of distinct species occurred, significant differences in δ13C values suggest that P. trigonatus and P. palpebrosus have different prey bases. Thus, despite being opportunistic predators, our results show that differences in crocodilian diets likely result from prey preferences and not only from habitat selection. These findings suggest that some species of crocodilians may be less generalist than traditionally thought and their influence on terrestrial or aquatic food webs might be species specific.
19.
Kieran D. Cox Hailey L. Davies Katie H. Davidson Travis G. Gerwing Sarah E. Dudas Francis Juanes 《Ecography》2020,43(5):668-681
Spatial subsidies are associated with pronounced ecosystem responses, as nutrients cross ecological boundaries and cascade through food webs. While the importance of subsidies is known, the role of shellfish, specifically molluscs, as a marine subsidy has not been formally described. Focusing primarily on the Pacific coast of North America, we identify vectors that transport shellfish-derived nutrients into coastal terrestrial environments, including birds, mammals, and over 13 000 yr of marine resource use by people. Evidence from recipient ecosystems suggests shellfish drastically influence soil chemistry, forest productivity and the diversity of primary producers at the regional and landscape level. Responses in higher trophic levels have not yet been investigated, but given documented responses in lower trophic levels, this may be due to a lack of examination. To determine if the processes we describe within the northeast Pacific are pertinent to coastal environments worldwide, we also explore shellfish subsidies globally, with a specific focus on temperate and tropical islands. As shellfish are not as spatially or temporally constrained as other subsidies, our examination suggests our findings are applicable to many other geographical regions along the marine–terrestrial interface. 相似文献
20.
Hanna Maghsoud Austin Weiss Julian P.S. Smith III Marian K. Litvaitis Stephen R. Fegley 《Invertebrate Biology》2014,133(2):121-127
Analysis of the meiofaunal food web is hampered because few prey have features that persist long enough in a predator's digestive tract to allow identification to species. Hence, at least for platyhelminth predators, direct observations of prey preference are almost nonexistent, and where they occur, prey identification is often limited to the phylum level. Studies using an in vitro approach are rare because they are extremely time‐consuming and are subject to the criticism that predators removed from their natural environment may exhibit altered behaviors. Although PCR‐based approaches have achieved wide application in food‐web analysis, their application to meiofaunal flatworms suffers from a number of limitations. Most importantly, the microscopic size of both the predator and prey does not allow for removal of prey material from the digestive tract of the predator, and thus the challenge is to amplify prey sequences in the presence of large quantities of predator sequence. Here, we report on the successful use of prey‐taxon‐specific primers in diagnostic PCR to identify, to species level, specific prey items of 13 species of meiofaunal flatworms. Extension of this method will allow, for the first time, the development of a species‐level understanding of trophic interactions among the meiofauna. 相似文献