Reproductive phenology of Melastomataceae species with contrasting reproductive systems: contemporary and historical drivers

• Flowering and fruiting are key events in the life history of plants, and both are critical to their reproductive success. Besides the role of evolutionary history, plant reproductive phenology is regulated by abiotic factors and shaped by biotic interactions with pollinators and seed dispersers. In Melastomataceae, a dominant Neotropical family, the reproductive systems vary from allogamous with biotic pollination to apomictic, and seed dispersal varies from dry (self‐dispersed) to fleshy (animal‐dispersed) fruits. Such variety in reproductive strategies is likely to affect flowering and fruiting phenologies.
• In this study, we described the reproductive phenology of 81 Melastomataceae species occurring in two biodiversity hotspots: the Atlantic rain forest and the campo rupestre. We aim to disentangle the role of abiotic and biotic factors defining flowering and fruiting times of Melastomataceae species, considering the contrasting breeding and seed dispersal systems, and their evolutionary history.
• In both vegetation types, pollinator‐dependent species had higher flowering seasonality than pollinator‐independent ones. Flowering patterns presented phylogenetic signal regardless of vegetation type. Fruiting of fleshy‐fruited species was seasonal in campo rupestre but not in Atlantic rain forest; the fruiting of dry‐fruited species was also not seasonal in both vegetation types. Fruiting showed a low phylogenetic signal, probably because the influence of environment and dispersal agents on fruiting time is stronger than the phylogenetic affinity.
• Considering these ecophylogenetic patterns, our results indicate that flowering may be shaped by the different reproductive strategies of Melastomataceae lineages, while fruiting patterns may be governed mainly by the seed dispersal strategy and flowering time, with less phylogenetic influence.

     

Non‐continuous reproductive phenology of animal‐dispersed species in young forest restoration plantings

Tree species that produce resources for fauna are recommended for forest restoration plantings to attract pollinators and seed dispersers; however, information regarding the flowering and fruiting of these species during early growth stages is scarce. We evaluated the reproductive phenology of animal‐dispersed tree species widely used in Atlantic Forest restoration. We marked 16 animal‐dispersed tree species in 3‐ to 8‐year‐old forest restoration plantings in Itu‐São Paulo, southeast Brazil. We noted the age of the first reproductive event, flowering and fruiting seasonality, percentage of trees that reached reproductive stages, and intensity of bud, flower, and fruit production for each species. Flowering and fruiting are seasonal for most species; only two, Cecropia pachystachya and Ficus guaranitica, exhibited continuous flowering and fruiting throughout the year; we also identified Schinus terebinthifolia and Dendropanax cuneatus fruiting in the dry season during resource scarcity. Therefore, we recommend all as framework species, that is, species that are animal‐dispersed with early flowering and fruiting potential, for forest restoration. Further, we recommend identifying and planting similar animal‐dispersed tree species that produce fruits constantly or in the dry season to maximize fauna resource availability throughout the year in tropical forest restoration plantings. Abstract in Portuguese is available with online material     

PHENOLOGY,SEED DISPERSAL,AND COLONIZATION IN MUNTINGIA CALABURA,A NEOTROPICAL PIONEER TREE

In this paper we describe the phenology, fruiting ecology, and colonization ability of a widespread neotropical pioneer tree, Muntingia calabura (Eleocarpaceae), in Costa Rican dry tropical forest. Individuals of M. calabura grow rapidly, flower at <2 yr age, and produce juicy red fruits containing thousands of tiny seeds that are eaten by a variety of frugivorous birds, bats, and monkeys. Although most individuals produce some flowers and fruit year-round, peak flowering occurs in the late dry season (April–May), and peak fruit availability occurs early in the wet season (May–June). Bats and parakeets are the major seed dispersers of M. calabura at our study site, and they concentrate their attention on this species at its fruit peak when few alternate fruits are available. Germinable M. calabura seeds accumulate in the forest soil in relatively high density in areas of high frugivore activity. M. calabura can quickly invade large disturbed areas with a high density of seedlings. Adult densities decline from thousands of individuals/ha to a few individuals/ha in a relatively few years. Clumps of M. calabura trees are replaced by later successional species in < 30 yr.     

Reproductive phenology of two Mimusops species in relation to climate,tree diameter and canopy position in Benin (West Africa)

Assessing species phenology provides useful understanding about their autecology, to contribute to management strategies. We monitored reproductive phenology of Mimusops andongensis and Mimusops kummel, and its relationship with climate, tree diameter and canopy position. We sampled trees in six diameter classes and noted their canopy position. For both species flowering began in the dry season through to the rainy season, but peaked in the dry season, whilst fruiting occurred in the rainy season and peaked during the most humid period. Flowering was positively correlated with temperature. Conversely, fruiting was negatively correlated with temperature and positively with rainfall, only in the Guineo‐Sudanian zone. For M. andongensis, flowering and fruiting prevalences were positively linked to stem diameter, while only flowering was significantly related to canopy position. For M. kummel, the relationship with stem diameter was significant for flowering prevalence only and in the Guineo‐Sudanian zone. Results suggest that phylogenetic membership is an important factor restricting Mimusops species phenology. Flowering and fruiting of both species are influenced by climate, and consequently climate change might shift their phenological patterns. Long‐term investigations, considering flowering and fruiting abortion, will help to better understand the species phenology and perhaps predict demographic dynamics.     

Field metabolic rates of phytophagous bats: do pollination strategies of plants make life of nectar-feeders spin faster?

Recently, it was argued that extrinsic factors, such as high foraging costs, lead to elevated field metabolic rates (FMR). We tested this suggestion by comparing the FMR of nectar-feeding and fruit-eating bats. We hypothesized that the foraging effort per energy reward is higher for nectar-feeding mammals than for fruit-eating mammals, since energy rewards at flowering plants are smaller than those at fruiting plants. Using the doubly labelled water method, we measured the FMR of nectar-feeding Glossophaga commissarisi and fruit-eating Carollia brevicauda, which coexisted in the same rainforest habitat and shared the same daytime roosts. Mass-specific FMR of G. commissarisi exceeded that of C. brevicauda by a factor of almost two: 5.3±0.6 kJ g⁻¹ day⁻¹ for G. commissarisi and 2.8±0.4 kJ g⁻¹ day⁻¹ for C. brevicauda. Since nectar-feeding bats imbibe nectar droplets of only 193 J energy content during each flower visit, a G. commissarisi bat has to perform several 100 flower visits per night to meet its energy requirement. The fruit-eating C. brevicauda, on the other hand, needs to harvest only 3–12 Piper infructescenses per night, as the energy reward per Piper equals ca. 6–30 kJ. We argue that the flowering and fruiting plants exert different selective forces on the foraging behaviour and energetics of pollinators and the seed dispersers, respectively. A comparison between nectar-feeding and non-nectar-feeding species in various vertebrate taxa demonstrates that pollinators have elevated FMRs.     

Chemical tradeoffs in seed dispersal: defensive metabolites in fruits deter consumption by mutualist bats

Although fleshy fruits function primarily to attract seed dispersers, many animal‐dispersed fruits contain potentially toxic secondary metabolites. These metabolites can provide defense against seed predators and pathogens, but their effects on dispersers are still poorly understood. In some cases plants may experience a tradeoff, where the metabolites that provide fruit defense also reduce seed disperser preferences. In other cases the bioactivity of fruit secondary metabolites may be directed primarily at pests with no negative effects on seed‐dispersing vertebrates. We tested the effects of amides, a group of nitrogen‐based defensive compounds common in the plant genus Piper (Piperaceae), in interactions with the primary seed dispersers of Piper in the neotropics – fruit‐feeding bats in the genus Carollia (Phyllostomidae). In a series of flight cage experiments, pure amides and amide‐rich fruit extracts reduced the preferences of bats for Piper fruit, affecting both the bats’ initial choices to remove Piper infructescences and the proportion of fruit consumed from individual infructescences once they were removed. However, the effects of amides varied considerably among three species of Carollia and among the specific individual amides and extracts tested. Overall, our results support the hypothesis that plants experience a tradeoff between seed dispersal and fruit defense, but the strength of this tradeoff and the overall fitness consequences may depend strongly on ecological context.     

Flowering phenology and reproductive success of native shrub Berberis darwinii Hook. along different light environments

Studies evaluating flowering phenology and reproductive success are necessary when we want to direct a domestication project in a species with a potential productive value. We studied flowering phenology and reproductive success of Berberis darwinii growing under different light conditions in its native distribution area in the Andean Patagonian forests of Argentina. We test the hypothesis that plants grown under conditions of high-light availability exhibit advanced phenology and higher reproductive success than those grown under conditions of lower light availability. Phenology and reproductive success were determined in three contrasting light conditions at two forest sites, which were, canopy, gap and forest edge. Plants did not bloom under the forest canopy. Flowering and fruiting period lengths were similar in both sites and light conditions of gap and forest edge during spring and summer. Although gap plants had more racemes per shoot, racemes of edge plants had more flowers, fruits and a higher proportion of flowers producing ripe fruit. We show that B. darwinii reproduction studied in the Andean Patagonian forests is conditioned by the canopy openness. Regarding reproductive success, edge plants invest less resources in flower production than gap plants to have similar fruit production.     

Seasonal variation in food availability and relative importance of dietary items in the Gambian epauletted fruit bat (Epomophorus gambianus)

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西双版纳地区鞘花的繁殖物候特征及影响因素

桑寄生植物作为关键种和关键性食物资源在生态系统中扮演着重要角色,其鞘花的繁殖物候特征不仅会影响自身的繁殖适合度而且还会影响依赖于其获取食物资源的动物。为了解鞘花的繁殖物候特征及其影响因素,探究其与寄主植物和种子散布者之间的相互作用关系。该研究以西双版纳地区分布的鞘花为对象,通过定期观测鞘花和其寄主植物木荷的繁殖物候,测量它们的生物学特性和温湿度等环境因子,并分析鞘花在个体水平和种群水平上的繁殖物候特征以及寄主植物和温湿度对其繁殖物候的影响。结果表明:(1)鞘花的开花物候属于集中大量开花模式,整个种群的花期和果期的持续时间分别约为20 d和72 d,花期和果期的同步性指数都较高,6月中旬鞘花果实被取食的数量和速率最大,之后逐渐降低。(2)鞘花的始花期与木荷的始花期相关性较高,花期和果期与木荷的繁殖物候基本重叠。(3)每月开花和果熟的个体数量与同期和前一个月的平均温度和相对湿度的相关关系均不显著。总之,桑寄生植物的繁殖物候特征可能受到较多因素的影响,若想全面了解半寄生植物的繁殖物候特征,就要综合考虑生物和非生物等多种因子的共同作用。     

Fire enhances the ‘competition-free’ space of an invader shrub: <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rosa rubiginosa</Emphasis> in northwestern Patagonia

Fire can influence reproductive phenology of plants, enhancing the reproductive rate of many species. Disturbances such as fire can promote the proliferation of exotic species in native plant communities. In this study we analyze the effect of fire on reproductive phenology in three native species (a shrub: Berberis buxifolia and two small trees: Maytenus boaria and Schinus patagonicus) and in an exotic shrub (Rosa rubiginosa). Flowering and fruiting phenology was monitored in neighbouring burned and unburned forests. The shrubs flowered and fruited in both sites, but the small trees did so only in the unburned site. There is no overlapping in the flowering and fruiting phenophases between the natives and the exotic species. Therefore, they do not compete in resource offering to pollinators and seed dispersers. Consequently, R. rubiginosa has a ‘competition-free’ space enhanced by fire, from the reproductive phenology perspective.     

Inter and intraspecific variation on reproductive phenology of the Brazilian Atlantic forest Rubiaceae: ecology and phylogenetic constraints

The reproductive phenology of seven species of Rubiaceae from the Brazilian Atlantic rain forest was compared to evaluate the occurrence of phylogenetic constraints on flowering and fruiting phenologies. Since phenological patterns can be affected by phylogenetic constraints, we expected that reproductive phenology would be similar among plants within a family or genus, occurring during the same time (or season) of the year. Observations on flowering and fruiting phenology were carried out monthly, from December 1996 to January 1998, at Núcleo Picinguaba, Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar, Ubatuba, S?o Paulo State, Brazil. Nine phenological variables were calculated to characterize, quantify and compare the reproductive phenology of the Rubiaceae species. The flowering patterns were different among the seven species studied, and the Kruskal-Wallis test indicated significant differences in flowering duration first flowering, peak flowering and flowering synchrony. The peaks and patterns of fruiting intensity were different among the Rubiaceae species studied and they differed significantly from conspecifics in the phenological variables fruiting duration, fruiting peak date, and fruiting synchrony (Kruskal-Wallis test). Therefore, we found no evidence supporting the phylogenetic hypotheses, and climate does not seem to constrain flowering and fruiting patterns of the Rubiaceae species in the understory of the Atlantic forest.     

Flowering and fruiting phenology of Normanbya normanbyi (W. Hill) L. H. Bailey (Arecaceae), a palm endemic to the lowland tropical rainforest of north‐eastern Australia

Abstract Normanbya normanbyi (W. Hill) L. H. Bailey (Arecaceae) is a monoecious, arborescent palm with a very small distribution area within the Daintree rainforest in north‐eastern Australia. Our 2‐year study was focused on the reproductive phenology at the individual and population level. At the population level flowering peaked in the dry season, whereas fruiting was confined to the wet season. Each palm can bear up to three inflorescences/infructescences at the same time. Flowering of each inflorescence is separated from each other by a couple of weeks. A single inflorescence consists of about 1900 staminate and 800 pistillate flowers. The flowering of N. normanbyi is protandrous with a staminate phase lasting 40 days and a pistillate phase of approximately 2 weeks. Between both phases is a non‐flowering phase of about 9 days. Fruit ripening takes 21 weeks, with an average of about 280 ripe fruit per tree. Comparison of three study plots revealed a moderate synchrony of flowering and fruiting initiation in this species of palm. The male phase of flowering shows a higher degree of synchrony than the female phase at the population level. Seasonal regularity of flowering and fruiting peaks appears to be predictable. The general flowering and fruiting phenology of N. normanbyi follows a subannual pattern with a strong tendency towards a continual pattern.     

Reproductive phenology of a wet forest understorey in the Western Ghats, South India

The reproductive phenology of 60 understorey species was monitored at monthly intervals for 20 months in a medium elevation wet evergreen forest in the Southern Western Ghats. The life forms monitored were herbs (including terrestrial orchids), shrubs and small trees. Flowering and fruiting were non‐uniform with a dry season flowering peak and wet season fruiting peak. Flowering in the understorey correlated negatively with rainfall. No significant correlation was detected for fruiting. Life forms had flowering and fruiting peaks at different times of the year.     

Landscape change alters reproductive phenology and sex expression in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Attalea</Emphasis> palms (Arecaceae) of southwestern Amazonia

As deforestation and land-use/land-cover change advance in tropical forest regions, an understanding of how plants adjust phenology and reproductive dynamics to altered landscapes can provide insights into plasticity, productivity, and population persistence. We compared the reproductive phenology, sex expression, and flower and fruit production of two monoecious Amazonian palms, Attalea phalerata and Attalea speciosa, in old-growth forest and as remnant trees growing in actively grazed pastures. Using 2 years of phenology data collected from natural populations near Vila Extrema, Rondônia, and eastern Acre, Brazil, we compared flowering and fruiting in the two habitats and tested for effects of palm height, crown size, and light availability on inflorescence and sex expression. Forest conversion to pasture stimulated greater overall flowering and fruiting in individual Attalea palms. As a population, remnant pasture palms continuously bore flowers and fruits year-round, while forest palms flowered seasonally in isolated peaks with consecutive months of inactivity. Crown size and greater light exposure affected flowering and fruiting dynamics in A. phalerata and A. speciosa, respectively, and increased light availability shifted A. speciosa sex expression towards greater female investment, primarily through regulation of sex determination and bud abortion. Removal of tropical forest does not always lead to the downfall of remnant tree populations, and under favorable conditions, such as abandonment of cropland and pasture, higher levels of reproduction can facilitate recovery of future generations. Tree species with flexible sex expression may be particularly resilient in the face of land-use and land-cover change.     

Flowering and Fruiting Patterns in a Subtropical Rain Forest,Taiwan

Reproductive patterns of tropical and temperate plants are usually associated with climatic seasonality, such as rainfall or temperature, and with their phylogeny. It is still unclear, however, whether plant reproductive phenology is influenced by climatic factors and/or phylogeny in aseasonal subtropical regions. The plant reproductive phenology of a subtropical rain forest in northern Taiwan (24°45′ N, 121°35′ E) was monitored at weekly intervals during a 7‐yr period (2002–2009). The flowering patterns of 46 taxa and fruiting patterns of 26 taxa were examined and evaluated in relation to climatic seasonality, phylogenetic constraints, and different phenophases. Our results indicated that most of the studied species reproduced annually. Additionally, both community‐wide flowering and fruiting patterns exhibited distinct annual rhythms and varied little among years. The community flowering peak matched seasonal changes in day length, temperature, and irradiance; while the community fruiting peak coincided with an increase in bird richness and the diet‐switching of resident omnivorous birds. In addition, phylogenetically closely related species tended to reproduce during the same periods of a year. Neither the mean flowering dates nor seasonal variation in solar radiation, however, was related to the fruit development times. Our results indicate the importance of abiotic, biotic, and evolutionary factors in determining the reproductive phenology in this subtropical forest.     

Host-mediated effects on the reproductive phenological asynchrony of a generalist mistletoe in China

一种泛性桑寄生植物繁殖物候异步性的寄主介导效应 寄主介导效应被认为会导致半寄生性的桑寄生植物的繁殖物候异步性，并由此为与桑寄生植物互惠共生的传粉者和种子散布者提供更长时间的食物资源供应，但目前关于此方面的研究还缺乏相关的实证数据。本研究以广泛分布于中国西南西双版纳地区的一种泛性桑寄生科植物五蕊寄生(Dendrophthoe pentandra)为材料，每周监测其开花、结果物候，检测了其开花和结果物候是否呈季节性格局，量化了五蕊寄生繁殖物候的异步程度，并检测了影响该植物始花期早晚的因素。最后，本研究还检验了五蕊寄生繁殖物候的异步性随寄主种类数量变化的效应。研究结果表明：(i)在连续两年的物候观测中五蕊寄 生的花期和果期都呈单峰分布格局；(ii)始花期显著受到植物大小和光照强度的影响，即冠幅越大和受光程度越高的植物个体有更早的始花期和更长的花期和果期；(iii)不同的寄主种类对五蕊寄生的繁殖物候有显著的影响，但与假设相反的是，随着寄主种类数量的增加，五蕊寄生繁殖物候的异步性没有显著提高。这项研究表明，在解释泛性桑寄生植物的繁殖物候异步性及寄主种类的数量对其影响的生态学意义还需进行更深入的探究。     

Latitudinal cline of flowering and fruiting phenology in Fagaceae in Asia

The seasonal timing of flowering and fruiting is crucial for the reproductive success of plants and for resource availability to animals. Although plants synchronize their reproductive timing to coincide with appropriate seasons by responding to environmental cues, seasonal variations in temperature and precipitation vary minimally in very wet tropical environments. To explore the latitudinal cline in the reproductive phenology of the Fagaceae in Asia, we analyzed phenology data for a total of 94, 121, and 219 species from Thailand, Malesia, and China, respectively, in the three genera of Fagaceae, Quercus, Castanopsis, and Lithocarpus. We found that Quercus and Castanopsis showed flowering peaks in April in China. In Thailand, the peak shifted to an earlier month, and the peak disappeared in Malesia. The flowering period lengthened with decreasing latitude in the animal-pollinated genera Castanopsis and Lithocarpus. However, this was not the case for the wind-pollinated genus Quercus. The fruiting period lengthened with decreasing latitude in all three genera. We examined the relationship between reproductive phenology and climatic factors. The combination of monthly temperature and precipitation best explained the monthly change in the proportion of flowering and fruiting species in China in all three genera. However, climatic factors had almost no impact on the predictive ability of the model in Malesia. Our results on phenological shifts in the family Fagaceae, from the temperate climates and seasonal tropics to the humid tropics, provide valuable information for predicting phenological changes in future climate change.     

Diversity of climbing seed plants and their reproductive habit in a karst seasonal rain forest in Nonggang,Guangxi, China

Aims Diversity of climbing seed plants and their reproductive habits and characteristics are central for the understanding of community structure and dynamics of forests and hence are important for forest protection. However, little is known about the climbing seed plants in northern tropical karst seasonal rain forests. Here, using the data of the species diversity and reproductive habits of climbing seed plants in Nonggang, Guangxi, China, we aim to 1) explore the species diversity and distribution of climbing seed plants in northern tropical karst seasonal rain forests, 2) study the flowering and fruiting phenology and 3) the associations of reproductive characteristics to the environment. Methods Species composition, preferred habitat, flowering time, fruiting time and fruit types of climbing seed plants were surveyed. The seasonality of flowering and fruiting were analyzed by concentration ratio and circular distribution. Climbing seed plants were divided into three groups according to their growth forms and places in spatial forest structure: bush ropes, herbaceous vines and lianas. Monthly flowering ratios, fruiting ratios, fruit types and their ratios in different groups were determined. These relationships of flowering ratio, fruiting ratio, fruit type and its ratio to meteorological factors were investigated using Pearson correlation analysis. Important findings There were a total of 333 species of climbing seed plants in Nonggang karst seasonal rain forest, belonging to 145 genera and 56 families. Bush ropes, herbaceous vines and lianas contained 119, 88 and 126 species, respectively. At species level, herbaceous vines were more abundance in valleys, while bush ropes and lianas were more abundance on slopes. Flowering and fruiting of climbing seed plants occurred seasonally, with flowering peaking in April to September, while fruiting peaking in July to December. The seasonality of flowering and fruiting in bush ropes was weaker than in herbaceous vines and lianas. Flowering ratio was significantly positively correlated with rainfall and air temperature, which suggest that flowering peaks in monsoon season. Peak time for fruiting was about three months later than the peak time of flowering, around the end of monsoon season. The ratio of samara species to all fruiting species in lianas was significantly positively correlated with wind speed, but negatively correlated with rainfall and air temperature. It showed that samara in lianas tended to occur in dry season with high wind speed. In conclusion, species diversity and the seasonal features of reproduction of climbing seed plants in Nonggang karst seasonal rain forest were closely related to the spatial and temporal variations of habitat resources.     

Synchronous fruiting and common seed dispersers of two endemic columnar cacti in the Caatinga,a dry forest in Brazil

This study evaluates the fruiting phenology, fruit traits, and seed dispersal in two Pilosocereus (Cactaceae) species that are widely distributed in Caatinga vegetation. We monitored the fruiting phenology of Pilosocereus gounellei and Pilosocereus chrysostele on a monthly basis for a period of 4 years (45 months from March 2009 to November 2012), including 30 individuals of each species. We also carried out focal observations, captured dispersers, and conducted germination tests, to identify the effective seed dispersers of these species. Both species exhibited sub-annual fruiting patterns and high fruiting synchrony index (O _jk 0.62), with peaks occurring from February to May for P. gounellei and February to April for P. chrysostele. In all, 248 visits by seven bird and two lizard species were recorded for P. gounellei, and 104 visits by five bird species were recorded for P. chrysostele. The two species shared five seed dispersers. The finch Lanio pileatus was the most frequently visiting bird species. The number of visits to the fruits of P. gounellei was higher than to the fruits of P. chrysostele. Passage of seeds through the digestive tracts of all bird species significantly increased the germination rate for P. chrysostele, whereas for P. gounellei, the birds Forpus xanthopterygius and L. pileatus decreased germination rates. Sub-annual fruiting patterns, similar fruit morphology, and high synchronous fruiting are factors that favor resource sharing among the dispersers of Pilosocereus in the Caatinga.     

Phenological variation in fruit characteristics in vertebrate-dispersed plants

Summary We investigated inter-specific variation in fruit characteristics — fruit size, seed number per fruit, seed weight, nutritional content, fruit persistence, and fruit synchronization — in relation to flowering and fruiting phenology in 34 species of fleshy fruited plants. Except for aspects of fruit synchrony and persistence, the results in general were inconsistent with previous suggestions about adaptive variation in phenologically related fruit traits. The main results were as follows: (1) Late flowering, late fruiting, lengthy development time from flower to fruit, and highly persistent fruits constitute a complex of correlated characteristics among the species. (2) Synchronization of fruiting within individuals increased from early ripening fruits to late ripening fruits. Fruiting synchrony was more pronounced in species with a small crop size than in species with a large fruit crop, whereas synchrony was not significantly related to flowering synchronization, nor to life form. (3) Nitrogen and carbohydrate content of fruit pulp did not vary in relation to phenology, whereas lipid content decreased from early to late ripening fruits. (4) No seasonal trends were found for variation in seed size or seed number per fruit. (5) Interactions with flowering phenology and developmental constraints are important in phenological fruiting patterns. Temporal variation in start of fruiting was partly (36%) explained by variation in flowering time. Seed weight variation explained 17% of variation in development time from flower to fruit. (6) Despite constraints from flowering and seed development, some adaptive adjustment in fruiting phenology is likely to be allowed for among the investigated species. Such an adaptive variation in fruiting phenology was suggested by intra-generic comparisons of Prunus and Vaccinium species.