典型内分泌药物用于乳腺癌治疗的研究进展

雌激素与乳腺癌细胞中的雌激素受体(estrogen receptors,ERs)结合后,通过基因组和非基因组信号途径调节细胞的生长和增殖,从而参与乳腺癌的发生和发展。内分泌药物作为一类典型的外源雌激素,它能通过调控不同靶组织中的雌激素水平来抑制细胞的增殖。深入开展内分泌药物研究可为乳腺癌的内分泌治疗提供指导。现综述了典型内分泌药物在乳腺癌治疗中的作用机制,并对ERs及其相关信号通路中用于乳腺癌治疗的可能靶点进行了讨论,以期为潜在的内分泌药物研究提供参考。     

α-雌激素受体介导的膜信号转导通路

近年来关于α-雌激素受体(ERα)介导的雌激素膜信号转导成为研究热点。ERα介导的雌激素膜信号转导通路,主要包括一氧化氮信号通路、钙离子信号通路以及蛋白激酶信号通路。这些信号转导过程中有第二信使的动员、ERα与连接蛋白的结合,非受体蛋白激酶的活化、ERα与其他膜蛋白的相互作用等多种细胞事件的参与。阐明ERα在雌激素非基因组信号转导中的作用及机制,对于开发更有效的选择性雌激素受体调节剂、改善肿瘤内分泌治疗效果,具有重要临床意义。     

新型雌激素受体ER-α36与乳腺癌

雌激素受体(estrogen receptor,ER)是诊断和治疗乳腺癌的分子标志和靶点.雌激素受体包括ER-α和ER-β,其中ER-α有ER-α66、ER-α46和ER-α36三种亚型.ER-α36作为新型雌激素受体,参与膜起始的雌激素信号或非基因组雌激素信号转导,在肿瘤细胞的增殖、分化、侵袭和转移等过程中发挥作用.胃癌、子宫内膜腺癌、前列腺癌、尤其是乳腺癌的发生发展与ER-α36密切相关.本文介绍了ER-α36的结构域特点,ER-α36介导的信号通路及ER-α36在乳腺癌治疗中的作用研究进展.     

表皮生长因子受体与他莫西芬耐药机制

雌激素受体及其信号通路在乳腺癌的发生发展中发挥着关键作用。到目前为止,抑制或阻断雌激素信号通路的内分泌治疗尤其是他莫西芬,仍是对雌激素受体阳性乳腺癌患者最有效的治疗手段之一。然而,他莫西芬的耐药问题直接影响了乳腺癌患者的治疗及预后。最近多项研究表明雌激素受体与表皮生长因子受体家族尤其是HER2介导的信号传导通路在多个点上相互交叉,彼此影响,与他莫西芬的耐药密切相关     

成骨细胞特异性转录因子2与乳腺癌

Runx2为成骨细胞特异性转录因子,调控成骨细胞分化和骨组织的形成.近年来研究表明,Runx2在乳腺癌中可以激活与癌症转移相关的骨基质、黏附蛋白、金属蛋白酶以及血管内皮生长因子,并且Runx2可以与一些联合抑制剂或激活剂形成调控复合体,在亚核结构域中存在,调节基因的转录以及间接地影响乳腺癌细胞的信号通路.除此之外,Runx2还可以与雌激素受体相互作用在某种程度上解除雌激素及其受体在乳腺癌发展中的调控作用.本文主要概括Runx2在乳腺癌中的作用机制,重点综述Runx2在乳腺癌中与雌激素受体相互作用的研究进展.     

脑内膜雌激素受体信号转导与窖蛋白

雌激素受体在脑内分布十分广泛,对脑功能具有重要作用。雌激素可以通过膜雌激素受体启动的信号转导通路(非基因组效应)作用于中枢神经系统的很多部位,而窖蛋白(caveolin)可以通过不同方式参与膜雌激素受体介导的脑功能调节。简要综述了脑内膜雌激素受体介导的信号转导通路与窖蛋白相关的研究进展。     

乳腺癌相关的细胞内信号通路

乳腺癌是女性中常见的恶性肿瘤之一.乳腺癌的发生、发展、转移及耐药性的产生与细胞内的信号通路密切相关,其中雌激素受体(estrogen receptor,ER)信号通路、胰岛素样生长因子受体（insulin-like growth factor receptor,IGFR)信号通路和表皮生长因子受体（epidermal growth factor receptor,EGFR）信号通路尤为重要．深入了解ER、IGFR和EGFR三条信号通路的作用机制及它们之间的交叉对话对于寻找新的更有效的肿瘤治疗靶点至关重要．本文综述了近年来有关ER、IGFR和EGFR三条信号通路研究进展及这三条通路与乳腺癌关系．     

雌激素相关受体及其在雌激素信号转导体系中的作用

雌激素生理效应的发挥是通过靶细胞雌激素受体介导的;但近年来发现,孤儿受体中的一种枛雌激素相关受体也参与了雌激素信号转导体系,并与雌激素受体传导通路相互交叉、相互影响,在雌激素相关生理和病理过程的发生和调节中也发挥着重要的作用。本文将就雌激素相关受体的组成、结构、功能及其与雌激素相关病理过程间的关系进行综述。     

雌激素受体α36

雌激素受体(estrogen receptor,ER)属核受体超家族成员之一,主要包括ER-α66、ER-α36、ER-α46和ER-β,它们通过与相应配体——雌激素的结合,在人体中发挥各种不同的功能。ER-α36是最近新发现的一种雌激素受体,它是ER-α66的独特变异体,主要分布于细胞膜和胞浆中,能抑制ER-α66和ER-β的反式激活功能,并参与雌激素的非基因组活性信号通路,介导了临床乳腺癌抗雌激素药物治疗抵抗。     

ER-α36在妇科肿瘤中介导非基因组效应研究进展

雌激素参与调节女性多种生殖或非生殖组织的正常生长、分化和运行。外源雌激素(xenoestrogen,XEs)的介入干扰机体内正常的生理平衡,并在具有雌激素依赖性细胞中通过雌激素受体(estrogen receptor,ER)介导基因组和非基因组途径发挥雌激素效应。然而,膜雌激素受体,特别是ER-α36介导XEs产生的非基因组途径因其低剂量、低亲和力、非线性、快速信号转导、整合等效应而备受关注。在XEs的刺激下,ER-α36可通过非基因组途径激活cAMP、PKC、Ca~(2+)、MAPK/ERK、PI3K/Akt等下游通路诱导产生雌激素效应。研究ER-α36和肿瘤细胞的相关性对肿瘤的发生和治疗具有重要意义。重点介绍ER-α36在子宫内膜癌、乳腺癌和卵巢癌等妇科肿瘤中介导非基因组产生的雌激素效应及其在疾病治疗过程中产生的影响,以期为妇科肿瘤预防和治疗提供一定的理论指导。     

Minireview: nuclear receptors and breast cancer

Until recently, the study of nuclear receptor (NR) function in breast cancer biology has been largely limited to estrogen and progesterone receptors. The development of reliable gene expression arrays, real-time quantitative RT-PCR, and immunohistochemical techniques for studying NR superfamily members in primary human breast cancers has now revealed the presence and potential importance of several additional NRs in the biology of breast cancer. These include receptors for steroid hormones (including androgens and corticosteroids), fat-soluble vitamins A and D, fatty acids, and xenobiotic lipids derived from diet. It is now clear that after NR activation, both genomic and nongenomic NR pathways can coordinately activate growth factor signaling pathways. Advances in our understanding of both NR functional networks and epithelial cell growth factor signaling pathways have revealed a frequent interplay between NR and epithelial cell growth factor family signaling that is clinically relevant to breast cancer. Understanding how growth factor receptors and their downstream kinases are activated by NRs (and vice-versa) is a central goal for maximizing treatment opportunities in breast cancer. In addition to the estrogen receptor, it is predicted that modulating the activity of other NRs will soon provide novel prevention and treatment approaches for breast cancer patients.     

Leptin signaling in breast cancer: an overview

The adipocyte-derived peptide leptin acts through binding to specific membrane receptors, of which six isoforms (obRa-f) have been identified up to now. Binding of leptin to its receptor induces activation of different signaling pathways, including the JAK/STAT, MAPK, IRS1, and SOCS3 signaling pathways. Since the circulating levels of leptin are elevated in obese individuals, and excess body weight has been shown to increase breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women, several studies addressed the role of leptin in breast cancer. Expression of leptin and its receptors has been demonstrated to occur in breast cancer cell lines and in human primary breast carcinoma. Leptin is able to induce the growth of breast cancer cells through activation of the Jak/STAT3, ERK1/2, and/or PI3K pathways, and can mediate angiogenesis by inducing the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). In addition, leptin induces transactivation of ErbB-2, and interacts in triple negative breast cancer cells with insulin like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) to transactivate the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), thus promoting invasion and migration. Leptin can also affect the growth of estrogen receptor (ER)-positive breast cancer cells, by stimulating aromatase expression and thereby increasing estrogen levels through the aromatization of androgens, and by inducing MAPK-dependent activation of ER. Taken together, these findings suggest that the leptin system might play an important role in breast cancer pathogenesis and progression, and that it might represent a novel target for therapeutic intervention in breast cancer.     

Modeling the estrogen receptor to growth factor receptor signaling switch in human breast cancer cells

Breast cancer cells develop resistance to endocrine therapies by shifting between estrogen receptor (ER)-regulated and growth factor receptor (GFR)-regulated survival signaling pathways. To study this switch, we propose a mathematical model of crosstalk between these pathways. The model explains why MCF7 sub-clones transfected with HER2 or EGFR show three GFR-distribution patterns, and why the bimodal distribution pattern can be reversibly modulated by estrogen. The model illustrates how transient overexpression of ER activates GFR signaling and promotes estrogen-independent growth. Understanding this survival-signaling switch can help in the design of future therapies to overcome resistance in breast cancer.     

BC-N102 suppress breast cancer tumorigenesis by interfering with cell cycle regulatory proteins and hormonal signaling,and induction of time-course arrest of cell cycle at G1/G0 phase

Mechanisms of breast cancer progression and invasion, often involve alteration of hormonal signaling, and upregulation and/or activation of signal transduction pathways that input to cell cycle regulation. Herein, we describe a rationally designed first-in-class novel small molecule inhibitor for targeting oncogenic and hormonal signaling in ER-positive breast cancer. BC-N102 treatment exhibits dose-dependent cytotoxic effects against ER+ breast cancer cell lines. BC-N102 exhibited time course- and dose-dependent cell cycle arrest via downregulation of the estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), androgen receptor (AR), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), phosphorylated (p)-extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p-Akt, CDK2, and CDK4 while increasing p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) signaling in breast cancer cell line. In addition, we found that BC-N102 suppressed breast cancer tumorigenesis in vivo and prolonged the survival of animals. Our results suggest that the proper application of BC-N102 may be a beneficial chemotherapeutic strategy for ER+ breast cancer patients.     

Deciphering the molecular and physiological connections between obesity and breast cancer

Obesity is associated with the higher risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The leptin signaling pathway is recognized to primarily regulate energy balance and associated with breast cancer. Furthermore, the estrogen signaling pathway plays a critical role in breast carcinogenesis. In this review, we discuss how obesity is linked to breast cancer via cross-talk of leptin and estrogen pathways.     

Apoptosis, chemoresistance, and breast cancer: insights from the MCF-7 cell model system

The MCF-7 cell line was derived from a patient with metastatic breast cancer in 1970. Since then it has become a prominent model system for the study of estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer. With this model as a focus, this review summarizes important studies addressing tumor necrosis factor-alpha as a prototypical apoptosis-inducing cytokine in MCF-7 cells. Both survival and death receptor signaling pathways are discussed in terms of their role in chemotherapy-induced apoptosis as well as in chemoresistance. Novel therapeutic approaches to the treatment of breast cancer are proposed utilizing knowledge of these signaling pathways as targets. Specifically, ceramide metabolism is proposed as a novel target for chemosensitivity, perhaps combined with selective inhibitors of Bcl-2 or PI3K/Akt/nuclear factor-kappaB. Suggested areas of future research include translational studies manipulating candidate survival and death signaling pathways.