Antioxidant potential of silk protein sericin against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress in skin fibroblasts

The antioxidant potential of silk protein sericin from the non-mulberry tropical tasar silkworm Antheraea mylitta cocoon has been assessed and compared with that of the mulberry silkworm, Bombyx mori. Skin fibroblast cell line (AH927) challenged with hydrogen peroxide served as the positive control for the experiment. Our results showed that the sericin obtained from tasar cocoons offers protection against oxidative stress and cell viability is restored to that of control on pre-incubation with the sericin. Fibroblasts pre-incubated with non-mulberry sericin had significantly lower levels of catalase; lactate dehydrogenase and malondialdehyde activity when compared to untreated ones. This report indicates that the silk protein sericin from the non-mulberry tropical tasar silkworm, A. mylitta can serve as a valuable antioxidant.     

Non-mulberry silk sericin/poly (vinyl alcohol) hydrogel matrices for potential biotechnological applications

This study reports a novel biopolymeric matrix fabricated by chemically cross-linking poly (vinyl alcohol) with silk sericin protein obtained from cocoons of the tropical tasar silkworm Antheraea mylitta. Glutaraldehyde was used as a cross-linking agent with hydrochloric acid acting as an initiator. The matrices were biophysically characterized and the cytocompatibility of the matrices was evaluated for their suitability as biomaterials. The surface morphology was assessed using atomic force microscopy while the changes taking place after cross-linking were confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The enhanced thermal stability of the constructs was assessed by thermogravimetric and differential scanning calorimetry. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis showed that sericin was chemically cross-linked with poly (vinyl alcohol) using glutaraldehyde. Silk sericin protein demonstrated a favorable effect on animal cell culture by successfully improving the adhering and spreading of cells on the poorly adhering surface of poly (vinyl alcohol). Confocal microscopy revealed cell spreading and actin filament development in sericin/poly (vinyl alcohol) hydrogel matrices. These findings prove the potential of non-mulberry silk sericin/poly (vinyl alcohol) hydrogel matrices to be used as biocompatible and biopolymeric material for tissue-engineering and biotechnological applications.     

Structure and properties of regenerated Antheraea pernyi silk fibroin in aqueous solution

Antheraea pernyi silk fibroin fibers were dissolved by aqueous lithium thiocyanate to obtain regenerated A. pernyi silk fibroin solution. By means of circular dichroism, ¹³C NMR and Raman spectroscopy, the molecular conformation of regenerated A. pernyi silk fibroin in aqueous solution was investigated. The relationship of environmental factors and sol–gel transformation behavior of regenerated A. pernyi silk fibroin was also studied. The molecular conformations of regenerated A. pernyi silk fibroin mainly were -helix and random coil in solution. There also existed a little β-sheet conformation. It was obviously different with Bombyx mori silk fibroin, whose molecular conformation in solution was only random coil but no -helix existence. With the increase of temperature and solution concentration and with the decrease of solution pH value, the gelation velocity of regenerated A. pernyi silk fibroin solution increased. Especially, it showed that A. pernyi silk fibroin was more sensitive to temperature than B. mori silk fibroin during the sol–gel transformation. The velocity increased obviously when the temperature was above 30 °C. During the sol–gel transformation, the molecular conformation of regenerated A. pernyi silk fibroin changed from random coil to β-sheet structure. The results of these studies provided important insight into the preparation of new biomaterials by silk fibroin protein.     

Flexibility regeneration of silk fibroin in vitro

Although natural silk fibers have excellent strength and flexibility, the regenerated silk materials generally become brittle in the dry state. How to reconstruct the flexibility for silk fibroin has bewildered scientists for many years. In the present study, the flexible regenerated silk fibroin films were achieved by simulating the natural forming and spinning process. Silk fibroin films composed of silk I structure were first prepared by slow drying process. Then, the silk fibroin films were stretched in the wet state, following the structural transition from silk I to silk II. The difference between the flexible film and different brittle regenerated films was investigated to reveal the critical factors in regulating the flexibility of regenerated silk materials. Compared with the methanol-treated silk films, although having similar silk II structure and water content, the flexible silk films contained more bound water rather than free water, implying the great influence of bound water on the flexibility. Then, further studies revealed that the distribution of bound water was also a critical factor in improving silk flexibility in the dry state, which could be regulated by the nanoassembly of silk fibroin. Importantly, the results further elucidate the relation between mechanical properties and silk fibroin structures, pointing to a new mode of generating new types of silk materials with enhanced mechanical properties in the dry state, which would facilitate the fabrication and application of regenerated silk fibroin materials in different fields.     

Conformation transition kinetics of Bombyx mori silk protein

Time-resolved FTIR analysis was used to monitor the conformation transition induced by treating regenerated Bombyx mori silk fibroin films and solutions with different concentrations of ethanol. The resulting curves showing the kinetics of the transition for both films and fibroin solutions were influenced by the ethanol concentration. In addition, for silk fibroin solutions the protein concentration also had an effect on the kinetics. At low ethanol concentrations (for example, less than 40% v/v in the case of film), films and fibroin solutions showed a phase in which beta-sheets slowly formed at a rate dependent on the ethanol concentration. Reducing the concentration of the fibroin in solutions also slowed the formation of beta-sheets. These observations suggest that this phase represents a nucleation step. Such a nucleation phase was not seen in the conformation transition at ethanol concentrations > 40% in films or > 50% in silk fibroin solutions. Our results indicate that the ethanol-induced conformation transition of silk fibroin in films and solutions is a three-phase process. The first phase is the initiation of beta-sheet structure (nucleation), the second is a fast phase of beta-sheet growth while the third phase represents a slow perfection of previously formed beta-sheet structure. The nucleation step can be very fast or relatively slow, depending on factors that influence protein chain mobility and intermolecular hydrogen bond formation. The findings give support to the previous evidence that natural silk spinning in silkworms is nucleation-dependent, and that silkworms (like spiders) use concentrated silk protein solutions, and careful control of the pH value and metallic ion content of the processing environment to speed up the nucleation step to produce a rapid conformation transition to convert the water soluble spinning dope to a tough solid silk fiber.     

Purification and biochemical characterization of a 70 kDa sericin from tropical tasar silkworm, Antheraea mylitta

Sericin isolated from the cocoon of the tropical tasar silkmoth Antheraea mylitta showed three major bands, with the lowest 70 kDa. This band was purified by anion exchange chromatography. Immunoblotting with concanavalin-A suggests a glycoprotein and CD analysis of secondary structure includes beta-sheet. Amino acid analysis shows that the protein is enriched in glycine and serine while the mole percentages of these two amino acids are different from sericin of mulberry silkworm. An anti A. mylitta sericin antibody was able to cross-react with sericin from A. assamensis but not the sericin of Bombyx mori and Philosamia ricini. Immunoblot analysis with proteins isolated from middle silk gland of A. mylitta at different developmental stages of larva showed that the 70 kDa sericin is developmentally regulated. These data extend the range of biochemical features found in this unusual family of proteins and may help in developing an improved understanding of their role in forming environmentally stable fibroin fiber-sericin composite structures (cocoons).     

13C NMR of Nephila clavipes major ampullate silk gland.

The major ampullate glands of the spider Nephila clavipes contain approximately 0.2 microliter each of a highly concentrated (approximately 50%) solution of silk fibroin. Therefore, the reservoir of silk in these glands presents an ideal opportunity to observe prefolded conformations of a protein in its native state. To this end, the structure and conformation of major ampullate gland silk fibroin within the glands of the spider N. clavipes were examined by 13C NMR spectroscopy. These results were compared to those from silk protein first drawn from the spinneret and then denatured. The 13C NMR chemical shifts, along with infrared and circular dichroism data, suggest that the silk fibroin in the glands exists in dynamically averaged helical conformations. Furthermore, there is no evidence of proline residues in U-(13)C-D-glucose-labeled silk. This transient prefolded "molten fibril" state may correspond to the silk I form found in Bombyx mori silk. There is no evidence of the final beta-sheet structure in the ampullate gland silk fibroin before final silk processing. However, the conformation of silk in the glands appears to be in a highly metastable state, as plasticization with water produces the beta-sheet structure. Therefore, the ducts connecting the ampullate glands to the spinnerets play a larger role in silk processing than previously thought.     

Osteochondral Tissue Engineering In Vivo: A Comparative Study Using Layered Silk Fibroin Scaffolds from Mulberry and Nonmulberry Silkworms

The ability to treat osteochondral defects is a major clinical need. Existing polymer systems cannot address the simultaneous requirements of regenerating bone and cartilage tissues together. The challenge still lies on how to improve the integration of newly formed tissue with the surrounding tissues and the cartilage-bone interface. This study investigated the potential use of different silk fibroin scaffolds: mulberry (Bombyx mori) and non-mulberry (Antheraea mylitta) for osteochondral regeneration in vitro and in vivo. After 4 to 8 weeks of in vitro culture in chondro- or osteo-inductive media, non-mulberry constructs pre-seeded with human bone marrow stromal cells exhibited prominent areas of the neo tissue containing chondrocyte-like cells, whereas mulberry constructs pre-seeded with human bone marrow stromal cells formed bone-like nodules. In vivo investigation demonstrated neo-osteochondral tissue formed on cell-free multi-layer silk scaffolds absorbed with transforming growth factor beta 3 or recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2. Good bio-integration was observed between native and neo-tissue within the osteochondrol defect in patellar grooves of Wistar rats. The in vivo neo-matrix formed comprised of a mixture of collagen and glycosaminoglycans except in mulberry silk without growth factors, where a predominantly collagenous matrix was observed. Immunohistochemical assay showed stronger staining of type I and type II collagen in the constructs of mulberry and non-mulberry scaffolds with growth factors. The study opens up a new avenue of using inter-species silk fibroin blended or multi-layered scaffolds of a combination of mulberry and non-mulberry origin for the regeneration of osteochondral defects.     

不同钙-醇溶解体系丝素蛋白的制备及表征研究

采用 ４种中性盐溶液 Ｃａ（ＮＯ３）２４Ｈ２Ｏ 甲醇、Ｃａ（ＮＯ３）２４Ｈ２Ｏ 乙醇、ＣａＣｌ２ 甲醇 水和 ＣａＣｌ２ 乙醇 水（摩尔比分别为 １∶２、１∶２、１∶２∶８、１∶２∶８）处理蚕丝纤维,透析后经冷冻干燥制成固体,利用ＳＤＳ ＰＡＧＥ、电镜扫描和红外光谱对制得的固体进行表征。ＳＤＳ ＰＡＧＥ结果表明：Ｃａ（ＮＯ３）２４Ｈ２Ｏ 醇体系降解丝素蛋白较 ＣａＣｌ２ 醇 水体系降解程度高;电镜扫描的结果表明 Ｃａ（ＮＯ３）２４Ｈ２Ｏ 甲醇和 ＣａＣｌ２ 乙醇 水溶解体系处理的丝素蛋白溶解比较完全,Ｃａ（ＮＯ３）２４Ｈ２Ｏ 甲醇处理的丝素蛋白冻干后为颗粒状,而 ＣａＣｌ２ 乙醇 水处理的丝素蛋白冻干后为片状。红外光谱的结果表明：４种溶液处理后的丝素蛋白构象均介于 β折叠和无规则卷曲之间,从而为丝素蛋白在药物缓释载体领域的应用提供了一定的理论依据。     

Morphology and structure of electrospun mats from regenerated silk fibroin aqueous solutions with adjusting pH

In this paper, regenerated silk fibroin (SF) aqueous solutions were adjusted to a pH of 6.9 by mimicing the condition in the posterior division of silkworm's gland and rheological behavior of solutions was investigated. The electrospinning technique was used to prepare fibers, and non-woven mats of regenerated B. mori silk fibroin were successfully obtained. The effects of electrospinning parameters on the morphology and diameter of regenerated silk fibers were investigated by orthogonal design. Statistical analysis showed that voltage, the concentration of regenerated SF solutions and the distance between tip and collection plate were the most dominant parameters to fiber morphology, diameter and diameter distribution, respectively. An optimal electrospinning condition was obtained in producing uniform cylindrical fibers with an average diameter of 1300nm. It was as follows: the concentration 30%, voltage 40kV, distance 20cm. The structure of electrospun mats was characterized by Raman spectroscopy (RS), wide-angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) and modulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC). It was found that electrospun mats were predominantly random coil/silk I structure, and the transition to silk II (beta-sheet) rich structure should be further explored.     

Fabrication and characterization of biomaterial film from gland silk of muga and eri silkworms

This study discusses the possibilities of liquid silk (Silk gland silk) of Muga and Eri silk, the indigenous non mulberry silkworms of North Eastern region of India, as potential biomaterials. Silk protein fibroin of Bombyx mori, commonly known as mulberry silkworm, has been extensively studied as a versatile biomaterial. As properties of different silk‐based biomaterials vary significantly, it is important to characterize the non mulberry silkworms also in this aspect. Fibroin was extracted from the posterior silk gland of full grown fifth instars larvae, and 2D film was fabricated using standard methods. The films were characterized using SEM, Dynamic contact angle test, FTIR, XRD, DSC, and TGA and compared with respective silk fibers. SEM images of films reveal presence of some globules and filamentous structure. Films of both the silkworms were found to be amorphous with random coil conformation, hydrophobic in nature, and resistant to organic solvents. Non mulberry silk films had higher thermal resistance than mulberry silk. Fibers were thermally more stable than the films. This study provides insight into the new arena of research in application of liquid silk of non mulberry silkworms as biomaterials. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Biopolymers 99: 292–333, 2013.     

Dynamic light scattering of native silk fibroin solution extracted from different parts of the middle division of the silk gland of the Bombyx mori silkworm

Dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements were performed on aqueous solutions of native silk fibroin extracted from three parts, the posterior (MP), the middle (MM), and the anterior parts (MA), of the middle division (M) of the silk gland of the Bombyx mori silkworm to study the dynamics and aggregation properties of silk fibroin. In the MP part, fibroin molecules are present as aggregates (or clusters) being composed of several large protein complexes or elementary unit (EU), which are further associated to make a large assembly connected via divalent metallic ions. In the MM part, such clusters of EU take more compact structure, and finally in the MA part, clusters disappear, but EUs are more or less aligned to keep the assembly, and the EU takes the conformation of wormlike cylinder capped with hemispheres at both ends. The overall conformational change in solution structure was interpreted as being due to the change in ionic environment in the solution. DLS study was also performed on regenerated silk fibroin solutions, which revealed that fibroin is present as a single molecule dominantly and their association behavior seems completely different from that of native samples and does not depend on types and concentration of added metallic ions.     

Potential of 2D crosslinked sericin membranes with improved biostability for skin tissue engineering

Silk sericin protein is a natural, hydrophilic, macromolecular glycoprotein mainly synthesized in the middle silk gland of the silkworm. It constitutes 25–30% of the silk cocoon. Sericin proteins have antioxidant, antimicrobial, UV-resistant properties, promote wound healing and support cell proliferation even in serum-free media. Most of the sericin is discarded as waste in silk processing industries. This study aims at improving the mechanical strength and stability of sericin extracted from the silk cocoons during processing and utilize it as a biocompatible natural biopolymer in biomedical applications. Crosslinked sericin membranes, from the cocoon of non-mulberry tropical silkworm, Antheraea mylitta, were prepared using gluteraldehyde as the crosslinking agent. Physical and structural characteristics of the membranes were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction along with swelling and degradation studies. The secondary structure of the membrane indicates that crosslinking provides a more integrated structure that significantly improves the stability and mechanical strength of the membranes. In vitro cytocompatibility of the membranes was evaluated by MTT assay and cell cycle analysis of feline fibroblast cells. The adherence, growth and proliferation patterns of cells on membranes were assessed by confocal microscopy, which demonstrated that the latter is non-toxic and supports cell growth. Cell cycle analyses indicate cytocompatibility with normal cell cycle pattern. This study reveals that silk sericin protein can be used as a biocompatible natural biopolymer for various applications in the biomedical field.     

Structural studies of Bombyx mori silk fibroin during regeneration from solutions and wet fiber spinning

Regenerated silk fibroin materials show properties dependent on the methods used to process them. The molecular structures of B. mori silk fibroin both in solution and in solid states were studied and compared using X-ray diffraction, FTIR, and (13)C NMR spectroscopy. Some portion of fibroin protein molecules dissolved in formic acid already have a beta-sheet structure, whereas those dissolved in TFA have some helical conformation. Moreover, fibroin molecules were spontaneously assembled into an ordered structure as the acidic solvents were removed from the fibroin-acidic solvent systems. This may be responsible for the improved physical properties of regenerated fibroin materials from acidic solvents. Regenerated fibroin materials have shown poor mechanical properties and brittleness compared to their original form. These problems were technically solved by improving the fiber forming process according to a method reported here. The regenerated fibroin fibers showed much better mechanical properties compared to the native silk fiber and their physical and chemical properties were characterized by X-ray diffraction, solid state (13)C NMR spectroscopy, SinTech tensile testing, and SEM.     

Phosphorylation of silk fibroins improves the cytocompatibility of silk fibroin derived materials: A platform for the production of tuneable material

Silk fibroin demonstrates great biocompatibility and is suitable for many biomedical applications, including tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Current research focuses on manipulating the physico‐chemical properties of fibroin, and examining the effect of this manipulation on firobin's biocompatibility. Regenerated silk fibroin was modified by in vitro enzymatic phosphorylation and cast into films. Films were produced by blending, at several ratios, the phosphorylated and un‐phosphorylated fibroin solutions. Fourier transform infra‐red spectroscopy was used to determine the specific P–OH vibration peak, confirming the phosphorylation of the regenerated silk fibroin solution. Differential scanning calorimetry showed that phosphorylation altered the intra‐ and inter‐molecular interactions. Further experiments demonstrated that phosphorylation can be used to tailor the hydrophylicity/hydrophobicity ratio as well as the crystalinity of silk fibroin films. Release profiling of a model drug was highly dependent on silk modification level. Cytotoxicity assays showed that exposure to lixiviates of phosphorylated films only slightly affected cellular metabolism and proliferation, although direct contact resulted in a strong direct correlation between phosphorylation level and cell proliferation. This new method for tuning silk biomaterials to obtain specific structural and biochemical features can be adapted for a wide range of applications. Phosphorylation of silk fibroins may be applied to improve the cytocompatibility of any silk‐based device that is considered to be in contact with live animals or human tissues.     

Study on cast membranes and electrospun nanofibers made from keratin/fibroin blends

Keratin regenerated from wool and fibroin regenerated from silk were mixed in different proportions using formic acid as the common solvent. Both solutions were cast to obtain films and electrospun to produce nanofibers. Scanning electron microscopy investigation showed that, for all electrospun blends (except for 100% keratin where bead defects are present), the fiber diameter of the mats ranged from 900 (pure fibroin) to 160 nm (pure keratin). FTIR and DSC analysis showed that the secondary structure of the proteins was influenced by the blend ratios and the process used (casting or electrospinning). Prevalence of beta-sheet supramolecular structures was observed in the films, while proteins assembled in alpha-helix/random coil structures were observed in nanofibers. Higher solution viscosity, thinner filaments, and differences in the thermal and structural properties were observed for the 50/50 blend because of the enhanced interactions between the proteins.     

Optical spectroscopy to investigate the structure of regenerated Bombyx mori silk fibroin in solution

Fluorescence and circular dichroism spectroscopy were used to monitor the conformational transition of regenerated Bombyx mori silk fibroin (RSF) in aqueous solutions under different conditions. According to the analysis of fluorescence spectra using anilinonaphthalene-8-sulfonic acid magnesium salt (ANS) as an external probe, the destruction of the hydrophobic core prior to the secondary structure change suggests that this collapse may initiate the conformational transition from random coil to beta-sheet for RSF. The temperature dependence of the structural changes of RSF, detected by both fluorescence spectroscopy and circular dichroism, shows a reversible process upon heating and recooling, with the midpoint around 45 degrees C. The results also indicate that most of the tryptophan (Trp) residues contained in silk fibroin are concentrated on the surface of the unfolded protein. However, they will change their location in the highly ordered structure (e.g., becoming more homogeneous) with the conformational transition of silk fibroin. Moreover, our studies also suggest that the presence of water plays a crucial role during the structure changes of fibroin.     

The natural silk spinning process. A nucleation-dependent aggregation mechanism?

The spinning mechanism of natural silk has been an open issue. In this study, both the conformation transition from random coil to beta sheet and the beta sheet aggregation growth of silk fibroin are identified in the B. mori regenerated silk fibroin aqueous solution by circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. A nucleation-dependent aggregation mechanism, similar to that found in prion protein, amyloid beta (Abeta) protein, and alpha-synuclein protein with the conformation transition from a soluble protein to a neurotoxic, insoluble beta sheet containing aggregate, is a novel suggestion for the silk spinning process. We present evidence that two steps are involved in this mechanism: (a) nucleation, a rate-limiting step involving the conversion of the soluble random coil to insoluble beta sheet and subsequently a series of thermodynamically unfavorable association of beta sheet unit, i.e. the formation of a nucleus or seed; (b) once the nucleus forms, further growth of the beta sheet unit becomes thermodynamically favorable, resulting a rapid extension of beta sheet aggregation. The aggregation growth follows a first order kinetic process with respect to the random coil fibroin concentration. The increase of temperature accelerates the beta sheet aggregation growth if the beta sheet seed is introduced into the random coil fibroin solution. This work enhances our understanding of the natural silk spinning process in vivo.     

In vitro production of Bombyx mori silk fibroin by organ culture of the posterior silk glands; isotope labeling and fluorination of the silk fibroin

An in vitro silk fibroin production system has been developed by culture of posterior silk glands from Bombyx mori. A large amount of the silk fibroin was produced continuously and effectively with a rotation culture procedure. Modified Grace's insect medium was used, and oxygen bubbling in the medium was performed. In addition, half of the medium was replaced with fresh medium every 6 h. The production yield of silk fibroin produced after 100 h culture was 81 mg/g wet weight of posterior silk gland. This culture system was used successfully for efficient (15)N isotope labeling of silk fibroin, which is required for (15)N solid state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis of silk fibroin. Moreover, the introduction of fluorinated amino acids into silk fibroin was also carried out using this culture system. (c) 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Preparation and characterization of novel nanocomposite films formed from silk fibroin and nano-TiO2

This paper describes the synthesis and characterization of new regenerated silk fibroin (SF)/nano-TiO(2) composite films. The preparation method, based on the sol-gel technique using butyl titanate as oxide precursor, could avoid reagglomeration of the prepared nanoparticles. Samples were characterized mainly by X-ray diffraction (XRD), ultra-violet (UV) spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy (AFM), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The UV and AFM results indicated that TiO(2) nanoparticles could be well dispersed inside the SF film, and the size of TiO(2) was about 80nm. The XRD and FT-IR analysis implied that the formation of nano-TiO(2) particles may induce the conformational transition of silk fibroin to a typical Silk II structure partly with the increasing of crystallinity in the composite films. Compared to the pure SF films, the mechanical and thermal properties of composite films were improved, and the solubility in water was decreased due to the conformational transition of silk fibroin to Silk II structure.