Distribution of badger latrines in a high-density population: habitat selection and implications for the transmission of bovine tuberculosis to cattle

Eurasian badgers Meles meles habitually deposit droppings and other scent marks at latrines, which may be associated with territorial defence, and communicate information related to group and individual identity and status, and food resources. Understanding patterns of latrine distribution contributes to our understanding of badger social behaviour, and may be relevant to managing the risks of transmission of bovine tuberculosis from badgers to cattle. We investigated the distribution of badger latrines relative to habitat composition in a high-density badger population occupying a 7 km² area of diverse landscape in south-west England. Results indicated that the frequency and density of badger latrines varied according to land use, with woodland and linear landscape features (particularly hedges and stone walls) being positively selected. The number of latrines decreased significantly with distance from linear features. Grassland was negatively selected given its availability, but contained the highest number of latrines. The tendency for latrines to be associated with particular habitat types covaried spatially across the study area. We present a habitat selection probability function, based on the output of our analyses, to allow comparison of observed versus expected latrine counts per habitat type at different sites. Habitat manipulation on farmland may offer opportunities to manage exposure of cattle to badger latrines. However, our analyses indicate that other factors (perhaps demographic or environmental) may also exert a substantial local influence on latrine location.     

Behavioural mechanisms of information transmission and reception by badgers, Meles meles, at latrines

We investigated the behavioural mechanisms by which European badgers receive and transmit information at shared defecation sites (latrines). We surveyed locations of 143 latrines to establish factors influencing latrine position, and monitored the behaviour of badgers at latrines. Badger latrines were significantly closer to tree trunks than were random samples, and were more likely to be associated with conifers than broadleafs. This may serve to protect scent marks from erosion. Latrines were also placed more closely to linear features than expected; linear features may channel the movements of badgers, promoting discovery of latrines. Within latrines, badgers differed in their placement of faeces and subcaudal scent marks. Faeces were placed in a subset of pits, which were used for several consecutive nights, then abandoned for another subset of pits. Subcaudal scent (squat) marks were positioned in prominent places, and there was no consistent tendency to overmark. Meetings were rare at latrines. Sniffing was the most common behaviour, and was focused on defecation sites. At least three distinct behaviours that appear to serve an information transfer function were observed: squat marking; defecation; and digging and scuffing. Squat marking and defecation were performed by all age and sex classes, and may have a role in cross-territorial communication. Digging and scuffing were associated with mating, and may communicate breeding condition. The wide range of marking behaviours, compounded by the lack of any clearly sex-limited behaviour at latrines, suggests a multiplicity of roles in the social lives of all age and sex classes of badgers. Copyright 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd on behalf of The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour     

In situ adaptive response to climate and habitat quality variation: spatial and temporal variation in European badger (Meles meles) body weight

Variation in climatic and habitat conditions can affect populations through a variety of mechanisms, and these relationships can act at different temporal and spatial scales. Using post‐mortem badger body weight records from 15 878 individuals captured across the Republic of Ireland (7224 setts across ca. 15 000 km²; 2009–2012), we employed a hierarchical multilevel mixed model to evaluate the effects of climate (rainfall and temperature) and habitat quality (landscape suitability), while controlling for local abundance (unique badgers caught/sett/year). Body weight was affected strongly by temperature across a number of temporal scales (preceding month or season), with badgers being heavier if preceding temperatures (particularly during winter/spring) were warmer than the long‐term seasonal mean. There was less support for rainfall across different temporal scales, although badgers did exhibit heavier weights when greater rainfall occurred one or 2 months prior to capture. Badgers were also heavier in areas with higher landscape habitat quality, modulated by the number of individuals captured per sett, consistent with density‐dependent effects reducing weights. Overall, the mean badger body weight of culled individuals rose during the study period (2009–2012), more so for males than for females. With predicted increases in temperature, and rainfall, augmented by ongoing agricultural land conversion in this region, we project heavier individual badger body weights in the future. Increased body weight has been associated with higher fecundity, recruitment and survival rates in badgers, due to improved food availability and energetic budgets. We thus predict that climate change could increase the badger population across the Republic of Ireland. Nevertheless, we emphasize that, locally, populations could still be vulnerable to extreme weather variability coupled with detrimental agricultural practice, including population management.     

Population ecology and prevalence of tuberculosis in Badgers in an area of Staffordshire

Forty-five badgers representing five social groups were removed from an area in Staffordshire where tuberculosis had occurred in cattle. Prior to removal, the tuberculosis status of the badger population was investigated by screening faeces samples, collected at fortnightly intervals, and badger social-group territories were determined by bait-marking. Samples for cultural and biological examination were taken from the live badgers before euthanasia and detailed post-mortem examination. The adult badger population density was 6-2/km2 and Mycobacterium bovis was isolated from samples taken post mortem from eight (17-8%) badgers. The results are reviewed in relation to previous findings.     

Distribution and population density of badgers Meles meles in Luxembourg

1. The distribution and density of Eurasian badgers Meles meles in Luxembourg was estimated by gathering information about the location of badger setts with a questionnaire survey, by visiting 708 setts in order to classify them as ‘main setts’ or ‘outliers’, and by estimating social group size by directly counting emerging badgers. 2. Badgers were found to be widely distributed in Luxembourg, with a minimum main sett density of 0.17 setts/km². Setts were sited preferentially in forest habitat. The mean minimum group size was 4.6 badgers. 3. The Luxembourg badger population was conservatively estimated to contain at least 2010 adult and young badgers (95% CI 1674–2347) in spring 2002, equivalent to a density of 0.78 adult and young badgers/km² (95% CI 0.65–0.91). This is moderate compared to most of continental Europe.     

How many Eurasian badgers <Emphasis Type="Italic">Meles meles</Emphasis> L. are there in the Republic of Ireland?

In Ireland, the badger Meles meles L is a reservoir species for Mycobacterium bovis and, as such, contributes to the maintenance of bovine tuberculosis in cattle. A previous estimate of the badger population in the Republic was 200,000 badgers. In the current study, we obtained data on badger numbers from a large-scale badger removal project (the Four-Area project). The removal areas of the Four-Area Project were surrounded by barriers (either water or buffer areas where removals were also conducted) to prevent badger immigration. Within these areas, a grid of 0.25 km² was created within which we knew the badger numbers and habitat types (based on Corine data). Associations between badger numbers and habitat type were investigated using negative binomial modeling. Extrapolations from the model yielded an estimated badger population in the Republic of approximately 84,000 badgers. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

张广才岭藏獾洞穴生境选择

2008年9月至2009年8月,在黑龙江省方正林业局新风林场,用不定宽样线法对藏獾洞穴生境选择进行研究,共记录了55组藏獾洞穴,藏獾洞口平均直径为(27.40±7.15)cm,洞深平均为(84.18±22.04)cm,倾角平均为(26.36±9.10)°,洞口总数=3.02个常用洞数+0.80个不常用洞数+0.56个废弃洞数。相对于对照样方而言,藏獾洞穴更偏爱选择位于郁闭度和植被盖度小,灌木密度大、距离近,乔木距离远,距水源和农田近、人为干扰距离远,坡度较缓的向阳中坡位的生境。资源选择函数模型为:logit(p)=246.980-1.059×植被盖度-0.703×距水源距离-1.403×坡度-45.005×坡向,模型的正确预测率为93.9%。     

The distribution of Eurasian badger, Meles meles, setts in a high-density area: field observations contradict the sett dispersion hypothesis

Are setts significant determinants of badger socio‐spatial organisation, and do suitable sett sites represent a limited resource, potentially affecting badger distributions? The factors determining diurnal resting den, or sett, location and selection by Eurasian badgers Meles meles L. were investigated in Wytham Woods, Oxfordshire. 279 sett sites were located. The habitat parameters that were associated with the siting of these setts were analysed and associations were sought between sett location and character and the body condition and body weight of resident badgers Habitat characteristics in the vicinity of setts were significantly different from randomly selected points. Badgers preferentially selected sites with sandy, well‐drained soils, situated on NW‐facing, convex and moderately inclined slopes at moderate altitude. There was no evidence that sett morphology (number of entrances, sett area, number of hinterland latrines) was affected by the surrounding sett site habitat characteristics. Mean body weight was significantly higher for badgers occupying territories with setts in sandy soils, situated on NW‐facing slopes, than in territories with less optimal sett characteristics. Contrary to the hypothesis that the availability of sett sites was limiting, and therefore that sett dispersion dictates the spatial and social organisation of their populations, the badgers were clearly able to excavate new setts. On our measures, these new setts were not inferior to old established ones, despite occupying subsequently exploited sites; the badgers utilising these new setts had neither lighter body weights nor poorer body condition scores. During the period of our study badgers have manifestly been able to dig numerous new setts; as satisfactory sites still remain available, this indicates that suitable sett sites have not yet become a limiting resource. There was no relationship between sett age and the characteristics of the site in which it was dug, as suitable sites were not limiting. Significantly, population expansion during the decade 1987–1997 was not constrained by lack of setts, rather the main proliferation in setts occurred after the population size had peaked in 1996. Some implications for the management and conservation of the Eurasian badger are considered.     

Spatio-temporal ecology and density of badgers <Emphasis Type="Italic">Meles meles</Emphasis> in the Swiss Jura Mountains

This study reports for the first time data on the spatio-temporal ecology of badgers living in a cold and wet mountain region (Swiss Jura Mountains). The home range, movements, activity patterns and habitat use of three badgers (two males, one female) were examined using radiotelemetry. Average home range size was 320 ha (MCP 100%), but the ranging behaviour of badgers varied at a seasonal scale. As in other regions, badgers were strictly nocturnal or crepuscular and showed a marked reduction of activity in the winter period. From spring to autumn, animals were active for an average (±SD) of 8.1 ± 2.4 h and travelled up to 9,460 m each night (mean±SD, 5,160 ± 2,600 m). The nightly distance travelled by badgers was positively correlated with their travel speed, the duration of the activity period and the used area, but not with night length. Year-round, the radio-collared animals avoided pastures and the vicinity of houses during their night trips. In winter and spring, individual badgers used forests and wooded pastures more than expected according to their availability, whereas cereal fields were actively selected in summer and autumn. Den-watching, night-lighting and radio-tracking data suggest that badgers live in pairs in this wet and cold region. Population density estimates range from 0.4 to 1.5 individuals/100 ha. We discuss the importance of trophic resources and climate as factors influencing badger behavioural ecology.     

Food habits and habitat selection of suburban badgers (Meles meles) in Japan

A study of the Japanese badger Meles meles anakuma was undertaken in Hinode, a suburb of Tokyo, between 1992 and 1998. Faecal analysis, based on 82 samples, revealed that during spring and summer, earthworms ( Megaseolocidae spp.) occurred at high frequency in the diet, with berries ( Rubus spp.), beetles and persimmon Dymopyrus kaki also eaten during summer months. Scavenged food was eaten in early spring when earthworm availability was low, and badgers switched from worms when persimmon became abundant in autumn. Twenty-one Japanese badgers (14 males and seven females) were radio-tracked. Adult badger home ranges were stable, and those of males [40±19 ( sd ) ha, n =7] were larger than those of females [11±6 ( sd ) ha, n =4]. Badger resting sites in each home range were located within 630 m of each other and categorized as setts or couches. Setts were sited within core areas (30% adaptive kernel method) of home ranges. Most setts were on a sub-ridge and avoided west-facing slopes. Couches, mainly in deciduous forest and forest edge, were generally sited towards the periphery of home ranges. Most badger foods were distributed along ecotones between forestry plantations and farmland; earthworms, their main food from late spring to summer, and berry thickets were both concentrated at the edge of conifer plantations. Persimmon trees, the main food source for badgers in autumn, were also found in agricultural land bordering forest edge. Badger home range size was related to forest edge density.     

Badgers prefer cattle pasture but avoid cattle: implications for bovine tuberculosis control

Effective management of infectious disease relies upon understanding mechanisms of pathogen transmission. In particular, while models of disease dynamics usually assume transmission through direct contact, transmission through environmental contamination can cause different dynamics. We used Global Positioning System (GPS) collars and proximity‐sensing contact‐collars to explore opportunities for transmission of Mycobacterium bovis [causal agent of bovine tuberculosis] between cattle and badgers (Meles meles). Cattle pasture was badgers’ most preferred habitat. Nevertheless, although collared cattle spent 2914 collar‐nights in the home ranges of contact‐collared badgers, and 5380 collar‐nights in the home ranges of GPS‐collared badgers, we detected no direct contacts between the two species. Simultaneous GPS‐tracking revealed that badgers preferred land > 50 m from cattle. Very infrequent direct contact indicates that badger‐to‐cattle and cattle‐to‐badger M. bovis transmission may typically occur through contamination of the two species’ shared environment. This information should help to inform tuberculosis control by guiding both modelling and farm management.     

Use of cattle farm resources by badgers (Meles meles) and risk of bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis) transmission to cattle

Nocturnal observations, radio telemetry and time-lapse camera surveillance were used to investigate visits by badgers (Meles meles L.) to two cattle farms. During 59 half-nights (ca. 295 h) of observation and 17 nights (ca. 154 h) of camera surveillance, 139 separate visits to farm buildings, by at least 26 individually identifiable badgers from two social groups, were recorded. The badgers, which included three individuals infected with bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis), used cowsheds, feedsheds, barns, haystacks, slurry pits, cattle troughs and farmyards to exploit a range of food resources, including cattle feed and silage. Cattle feed was contaminated with badger faeces and badgers also came into close contact with cattle. The minimum number of badgers visiting farm buildings per night was negatively correlated with local 24 h rainfall. We conclude that exploitation by badgers of resources provided by cattle farms constitutes a potentially important mechanism for tuberculosis transmission from badgers to cattle.     

A survey of helminth infection in Eurasian badgers (Meles meles) in relation to their foraging behaviour in a Mediterranean environment in southwest Portugal

This study provides the first data on the helminth fauna of the Eurasian badger in the southwestern edge of its range (Grândola Mountain, Portugal) and interprets the results in relation to badger diet and feeding behaviour. By examination of 163 badger faecal samples, faecal developmental stages (eliminative forms) of four helminth species and one genus were identified: one cestode (Atriotaenia incisa) and four nematodes (Mastophorus muris, Molineus patens, Uncinaria criniformis and Strongyloides sp.). The overall prevalence of parasites was 62%, with limited seasonal variation. Single parasite excretions were dominant and Strongyloides sp. excretion was the most common. Diet assessment based on 450 faecal samples revealed that badgers consumed mainly insects and fruits. No correlation was detected between helminth prevalence and diet. Apparently, diet (mainly insects) and feeding behaviour (fossorial), together with the species’ social behaviour (anal scent marking of group members), facilitate the infection with helminths. The helminth fauna of Eurasian badgers in Grândola Mountain has isolationist characteristics, apparently indicating low host colonisation.     

Restricted ranging behaviour in a high-density population of urban badgers

By studying the responses of different species to urbanization, it is possible to understand the impact of this type of habitat modification and to explore, more generally, the link between variations in the environment and changes in behaviour. We radio collared 17 badgers Meles meles from six social groups in a 1 km² urban study area in Brighton, UK, where local badger population density was high, and collected data on their ranging behaviour between 2005 and 2007. We aimed to determine how badgers adapt their behaviour to an urban environment and to assess the generality of previously reported differences in the ranging and territorial behaviour of urban and rural badgers. Analysis of habitat preferences and movement patterns suggested that garden habitat was principally used for foraging, while scrub and allotment habitats were important in allowing animals to travel from one part of their range to another. Group and individual home ranges were the smallest so far recorded for badgers (mean 100% minimum convex polygons=9.26 and 4.91 ha, respectively). Individual range size was negatively correlated with the availability of garden habitat, suggesting that the rich food resources provided by gardens enabled ranges to be small. Group ranges were mostly non-contiguous and there was no evidence of territorial scent marking; rather, activity was mainly restricted to areas in the vicinity of main setts. It is clear that badgers can adapt successfully to urban habitats and that this process affects various aspects of their behaviour. However, our high-density population of urban badgers displayed patterns of behaviour that differed not only from those of typical rural badgers, but also in some respects from those of a previously studied low-density urban population. We conclude that generalizations about the effects of urbanization must be made with caution.     

Environmental constraints at the edge of a species distribution, the Eurasian badger (Meles meles L.): a biogeographic approach

Aim This paper describes the distribution pattern (occurrence) of badgers (Meles meles L. 1758) in a Mediterranean mountain area of central Spain, in relation to landscape characteristics and climatic data. We test the fit of the badger occurrence pattern to the niche hypothesis predictions. Location We sampled twenty-four survey plots randomly distributed in the mountains of central Spain (Sierra de Guadarrama, Madrid): ten in the north and fourteen in the south slopes. All habitat types and climatic conditions typical of central Spain can be found. Methods The ocurrence of badgers in the plots were recorded through an exhaustive search of setts and latrines in four different (and evenly spaced) points in each plot. The index of occurrence was made by dividing the number of positive points (badger presence) by the total number of points sampled (four in all plots). Landscape patterns (% type of habitat in each plot) were obtained from detailed maps and climate data from meteorological stations placed in the plot. We analyse the contribution of landscape variables and climate data to explain the differences in badger occurrence through Pearson correlations and fixed one-way ANCOVA with climatic data as fixed factor, vegetation cover as covariates and badger occurrence as response variable. Additionally, we use an one-way ANOVA to check the differences in occurrence between north and south plots with the location of each plot as fixed factor. Results The results indicate that the badger is more abundant in rainy areas of the mountains, and in open landscapes vegetated by ash-tree forests than in closed landscapes vegetated by holm oak forests. In addition, the species is more abundant in the northern plots than in the southern ones. Northern plots were homogeneous areas characterized by their open landscape and wet climate, while southern plots were characterized by their dry climate and closed landscapes. In addition, climate (measured as summer rain) is more determinant than habitat type (holm oak cover) to explain the pattern of badger occurrence. Main conclusions Overall, we consider that the typical Mediterranean landscapes are poor habitats for badgers due to changes in the environmental conditions associated with concomitant changes in food resources. These data support the niche hypothesis to explain the changes in abundance or occurrence close to the edge of the distribution of species, and in particular, in Palearctic species in the Mediterranean area.     

Evaluating seasonal bait delivery to badgers using rhodamine B

In the UK and Ireland, research on the control of bovine tuberculosis in badgers includes the development of a palatable bait for oral delivery of a vaccine and a means of its deployment in the field. In the present study, we carried out field deployment of bait according to the established method of bait marking in early spring and early summer to compare the effects of seasonality on bait uptake rates. All baits contained rhodamine B (RhB) which was subsequently detected in the hair and whiskers of captured badgers. During the 8 days of bait feeding at 14 badger setts, 99% of baits deployed in spring, and 100% of those deployed in summer were removed. The presence of RhB in captured badgers indicated high rates of uptake amongst adult badgers in spring (93%) and summer (98%). Only cubs captured in summer showed evidence of having taken bait (91%). Between 67% and 100% of each social group was estimated to have taken bait. The detection of RhB in 96% of badgers captured at outlier setts, where bait was not fed, suggested that deployment at main setts alone may be sufficient to target a relatively high proportion of the badger population. The number of baits deployed per marked badger suggested that a similar level of uptake might be achievable using fewer baits. The results clearly demonstrate the potential value of the bait-marking methodology for delivering vaccine baits to badgers during spring and summer, but that deployment in early summer is necessary to target cubs.     

Birds in the diet of the Eurasian badger Meles meles: a review and meta-analysis

1. We reviewed 110 published studies of badger diet or badger predation of birds. The studies covered most of the Eurasian badger's range, from Ireland east to Japan and from Sweden south to southern Spain. 2. Bird remains were recorded in 2038 cases out of a total 36699 samples of badger faeces and stomachs. The overall percentage frequency of occurrence of bird remains in badger faeces and stomachs was 5.55% for all studies combined, and 7.97% for UK studies. The remains of 45 bird species from 11 orders were recorded. 3. The percentage frequency of occurrence of birds in badger diet increased significantly with latitude. There was no significant relationship between the occurrence of birds in badger diet and season. 4. While the prevalence of birds in the diet of badgers is generally low, the studies reviewed here provide insufficient evidence to assess whether badger predation has an impact on bird populations at a national scale, and experimental approaches to this problem are required.     

Annual and circadian activity patterns of badgers (Meles meles) in Białowieża Primeval Forest (eastern Poland) compared with other Palaearctic populations

Aim The annual and circadian rhythms and duration of activity of Eurasian badger Meles meles (Linnaeus 1758) were studied in a low‐density population inhabiting the primeval woodland in the European temperate zone. Results were compared with available data from the literature on seasonal changes in body mass and winter inactivity of badgers from across the Palaearctic region. Location Field work was carried out in Bia?owie?a Primeval Forest, eastern Poland. Biogeographical variation was reviewed based on twenty‐three localities in the Palaearctic region (from Western Europe to Central Siberia). Methods Thirteen badgers were radio‐collared in 1997–2001. Their circadian activity was sampled by 24‐h sessions of continuous radio‐tracking with location taken at 15‐min intervals. Annual activity was studied by radio‐tracking and inspections of setts. Earthworm (badgers’ main food) biomass was estimated in four types of habitats throughout the year. Results Badgers were nocturnal with one long bout of activity. Their rhythms of diel activity differed between spring and autumn, and between adult and subadult individuals. On average, badgers emerged from setts at 19:00 hours and returned to them at 03:42 hours. The highest level of activity was recorded between 20:00 and 03:00 hours. Duration of daily activity was, on average, 8.2 h day^?1, but varied significantly between seasons. The seasonal changes were inversely related to the abundance of earthworms. Duration of activity also depended on daily temperature, especially in the cold season. In winter, badgers stayed inactive for an average of 96 days per year. In autumn, they built fat reserves and their body mass nearly doubled compared with the spring values. The literature review on annual cycle of activity and body mass changes in Eurasian badgers showed that fat storage and duration of winter sleep strongly depended on climate (best approximated by January mean temperature). In regions with warm climates, badgers were active year round and their body mass changed only slightly, while in regions with severe winters badgers increased their body mass twofold from spring to autumn, and stayed inactive for as long as 6 months per year. Main conclusion We propose that, in the temperate and boreal zones of the Palaearctic region, the ultimate determinant of biogeographical variation in badgers’ annual activity is the winter shortage of earthworms, which are the main component of badger diet.     

An Observational Study of Coyote (Canis latrans) Scent-marking and Territoriality in Yellowstone National Park

Free-ranging coyotes ( Canis latrans ) living in neighboring packs were observed in the Lamar Valley of Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, from Jan. to May 1997. Through direct observation, we recorded the location of coyote scent marks and information regarding the identity of the marking animal. Patterns of scent-marking were then analyzed spatially and demographically. All of the evidence from the present study supports a strong relationship between scent-marking and territoriality in these coyotes, and all predictions were met. A preponderance of scent marks was found in the periphery of territories. Most of those marks were raised-leg urinations (RLUs) and forward-lean urinations (FLUs), postures associated very strongly with males, particularly dominant individuals. Ground-scratching was also closely associated with these types of marks and was performed more on the periphery of territories than in the interior. A complete lack of overlap of adjacent territories and very limited overlap of movements into territories fits classic definitions of territory and home range. Scent-marking seems to be strongly associated with the establishment and maintenance of these boundaries between packs of coyotes competing for the same resources in a limited space.     

Reports on badgers Meles meles in Dutch newspapers 1900–2013: same animals,different framings?

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