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1.
The evolution of male courtship signals such as the bioluminescentflashes of fireflies may be shaped, at least in part, by femalepreference for particular characteristics of the male signal.These female preferences for male courtship signals may ariseas a result of the benefits of choosing males with particulartraits. One possible benefit of mate choice occurs if femalescan use male courtship signals as an honest indicator of malenutritional contributions at mating, nuptial gifts. This paperreviews female preference for male flash characteristics inPhotinus fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae), and the potentialfor females to use male flash characteristics to predict nuptialgift quality. In Photinus firefly species with single pulseflashes females preferentially respond to flashes of greaterintensity and duration. Male Photinus provide a nuptial giftto females at mating in the form of a spermatophore and flashduration serves as a good predictor of spermatophore mass formales collected early in the season. However, Photinus firefliesdo not feed as adults, so spermatophore mass decreases withsubsequent matings. In response, nutrient-limited females maystop preferentially responding to longer duration flashes, increasingtheir overall responsiveness later in the mating season as theyforage for spermatophores. Therefore, the evolution of malecourtship signals in Photinus fireflies is the product not onlyof female preference for male flash characteristics, but alsothe costs and benefits of female choice that shape these preferences.  相似文献   

2.
Seasonal Variation in Mate Choice of Photinus ignitus Fireflies   总被引:2,自引:1,他引:1  
Mate choice by either sex may vary with changes in the associated costs and benefits, determined by factors such as the availability of potential mates and variation in mate quality. We examined seasonal variation in operational sex ratio, courtship behavior, spermatophore mass, egg count, and the relationship between morphological traits and mating success in Photinus ignitus fireflies to determine if mate choice in either sex varied with the availability and relative reproductive investment of fertilizable females and sexually active males. Successfully mating males had larger lanterns than unsuccessful males when the operational sex ratio was male‐biased. In addition, female responsiveness to male signals increased as the number of courting males decreased, and male spermatophore mass decreased with body size across the mating season. Successfully mating females had larger body mass than unsuccessful females. Female body mass predicted egg count and female rejection by males increased as the season progressed and female size decreased. These results suggest that both male and female P. ignitus exhibit mate choice, and that such choice is influenced by seasonal variation in the abundance and quality of potential mates.  相似文献   

3.
Fireflies are well known for the use of bioluminescence for sexual communication. In species using flash signals for pair formation, species and sexual identity are conferred by flash timing parameters such as flash duration, flash interval, flash number, and response delay. In dialog fireflies in North America, the male is the advertiser and the female is the responder. In these species, the male flash signal parameter varies depending on species, but the female flash signal parameter is limited only to response delay. However, in fireflies other than dialog fireflies, sexual flash communication is not well studied. Although many female-advertisement-like fireflies are reported, we have no confirmed case of sexual communication in a female-advertisement species. Here, we report the sexual flash communication of an Asian firefly, Luciola (Hotaria) parvula, in which the female flashes spontaneously. By using an electronic firefly, we confirm experimentally that males are specifically attracted to flashes with a female-specific flash duration. This is the first experimental report of sexual communication of a female advertiser in firefly communication. In this species, females call males usually with spontaneous flashes unlike dialog fireflies.  相似文献   

4.
Limits to Nuptial Gift Production by Male Fireflies, Photinus ignitus   总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2  
Males of diverse insect species provide females with nuptial gifts, and limits on males' ability to produce these gifts may influence courtship behavior and mating systems. In the firefly Photinus ignitus, males transfer a complex spermatophore to females during mating. We provided firefly males unlimited access to responsive females to examine whether spermatophore production limits male mating success. Male spermatophore mass decreased significantly across sequential matings, and the percentage of successful matings declined during the second half of each male's life span. Male body mass explained a significant proportion of variation in size of the first spermatophore produced by P. ignitus males, but this relationship disappeared with second spermatophores. This study indicates that males' ability to produce spermatophores declines over their lifetime and that limits on nuptial giftproduction can constrain male mating success in Photinus fireflies.  相似文献   

5.
The evolutionary dynamic of courtship signaling systems is drivenby the interaction between male trait distributions and femalepreferences. This interaction is complex because females maychoose mates based on multiple components of male signals, andfemale preference functions may vary depending on mate availability,female reproductive state, and environmental conditions. InPhotinus fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae), flying males emitbioluminescent flash signals to locate sedentary females, whichreply selectively to attractive male flash signals with theirown response flash. In this study, we first examined temporalvariation in the paired-pulse flash patterns produced by Photinusgreeni males in the field and found significant among-male variation(70% of total variation) in interpulse intervals (IPIs). Therewas no significant relationship between male IPI and spermatophoresize, suggesting that P. greeni male courtship signals do notprovide females with reliable indicators of male material resources.In laboratory playback experiments, we presented P. greeni femaleswith simulated flash signals to assess how IPI and pulse durationindependently affected the likelihood of female flash response.We also examined the effects of female body mass and time duringthe mating season on female preference functions, hypothesizingthat females would be less discriminating when they were heavier(more fecund) and when mate availability declined. We foundthat P. greeni females discriminated among signals within theirspecies' range based primarily on flash pattern IPI. Neitherthe time during the mating season nor female weight alteredfemale preference functions for IPI, although season did influencefemale response to pulse duration. These results reveal thatP. greeni females discriminate among conspecific males basedprimarily on male IPIs, the same signal character previouslyshown to be important for firefly species recognition. Fieldplayback experiments indicated that female responsiveness peakednear the average IPI given by males at different ambient temperatures,suggesting that fireflies exhibit temperature coupling similarto that seen in many acoustically signaling animals.  相似文献   

6.
Females often show a preference for exaggerated male sexual traits or courtship behaviors. Such preferences can benefit females if trait expression is correlated with male genetic quality or phenotypic condition. Previous studies of several Photinus fireflies have revealed considerable intraspecific variation in the bioluminescent courtship signals emitted by males, and have also demonstrated that females prefer more conspicuous male signals. Thus, females might gain information about male phenotypic quality if courtship signals reflect male condition. We examined possible condition-dependence of Photinus male courtship signals using two complementary approaches. First we experimentally manipulated male mating status, which is expected to affect male condition by depleting resources required for nuptial gift formation, and looked at how individual male flash signals changed with mating status and over time. We used an additional approach to assess condition-dependence by examining whether a relationship exists between flash signal parameters and measures of male condition and body shape. We found that the pulse rate of P. greeni courtship signals was not altered by male mating status or age, and that the pulse duration of P. ignitus signals was also not affected by male mating status. In P. pyralis fireflies, males showed a non-significant trend toward reduced signal pulse duration with age. When we examined the relationship between male flash signals and condition measures, we found no effect of male condition or body shape on courtship signals in P. greeni or P. ignitus; in P. pyralis, males with wider body shapes produced longer duration flash signals. On the other hand, we found no evidence in P. pyralis that condition predicted flash duration. Taken together, these results indicate that Photinus males’ flash signals do not reflect adult male condition, and suggest that females are unlikely to use courtship signals as an indicator of male phenotypic quality.  相似文献   

7.
Across diverse animal taxa, sperm is transferred from malesto females during mating within a spermatophore produced bymale accessory glands. In some insects, male spermatophoresprovide females with nutrients that may be used to increasereproductive output or for somatic maintenance, while in othersno such benefits have been detected. Boggs suggested that variationin the current function of spermatophores may be explained byconsidering ecological and life-history factors. This studyexamined spermatophore function in Ellychnia corrusca and Photinusignitus (Coleoptera: Lampyridae), two beetles that exhibit markeddifferences in adult diet, adult life span, and overwinteringstage. During mating, males of both species transfer to femalesa complex, proteinaceous spermatophore, which is subsequentlydigested in a specialized sac within the female reproductive tract.Males of each species were injected with 3H-radiolabeled aminoacid mixtures and mated with conspecific females. The fate of spermatophore-derivedproteins was determined by dissecting females at various timesafter mating with these radiolabeled males. Females of thesetwo species showed markedly different patterns of incorporationof spermatophorederived nutrients. P. ignitus females incorporatedthe majority (62%) of spermatophore-derived protein into maturingoocytes within 2 days after mating. In contrast, in E. corruscaa large percentage of radiolabel (46%) appeared in female fatbody at 6 days after mating, with a threefold lower allocationto maturing oocytes compared to P. ignitus. These findings supportthe prediction that short-lived, nonfeeding females are selectedto allocate a greater proportion of male-derived nutrients toreproduction, while longer-lived, feeding females are selectedto allocate a greater proportion to somatic reserves and maintenance.These results suggest that life-history characteristics maybe useful in explaining observed differences in spermatophorefunction across taxa.  相似文献   

8.
FemalePhoturis versicolor fireflies attempt to capture males by responding to heterospecific flash patterns. A mating-dependent switch occurs which affects response timing and frequency of female flashes. We examined the switch using females of known age, mating status, and flash experience to assess how accurate mimicry is, what factors influence it, and what mechanism produces it. Presentations of simulated male flash patterns before and after mating revealed elements of an entrainment mechanism controlling female responsiveness. Unmated females preferentially answered conspecific patterns with variable latencies, averaging 1 s. Mating induced changes in both response frequency and response latency: Females answered heterospecific patterns more frequently, and latencies elicited by conspecific patterns shifted away from the unmated range. Heterogeneity in mean and variance of response latency among individuals indicates that females do not share a discrete reply to a given pattern. Little correspondence exists between latencies of sympatric species andP. versicolor females, suggesting that the flash response mechanism produces entriainment to any rhythmic pattern, not a one-to-one matching between prey and predator latencies. Different selective scenarios underlie strict mimicry versus entrainment mimicry.  相似文献   

9.
Flash communication by the firefly Photinus pyralis was studiedin a stationary, simulated flight apparatus in which an individualof either sex could be "flown" and its flashing behavior andflight orientation recorded in response to photic stimulation.Males made long "flights" showing many of the characteristicsof their natural, female-seeking patrol flights. Males orientedtheir flight vectors towards light emitting diode (LED) flashesthat mimicked the responses of females to their patrol flashes.Females flew and responded to male-emulating LED flashes, makinga previously unknown early response followed by the typical2 sec delayed response characteristic of the dialoging perchedfemale, including abdominal aiming of the flash. Pairs consistingof males, in tethered flight, and females, perched, were runin an integrating sphere photometer, permitting the first determinationsof flash intensities of both sexes during courtship dialog.The implications of this work on thought about evolution ofphotic behavior in fireflies are considered.  相似文献   

10.
Nuptial gifts and sexual selection in photinus fireflies   总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1  
The phenomenon of nuptial gift transfer during mating occursacross a remarkably wide range of taxa, and such male donationsare likely to influence both pre-copulatory and post-copulatorysexual selection. This paper reviews what is known about nuptialgifts in Photinus fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae), and discussesthe adaptive significance of spermatophores in firefly matingsystems. During copulation Photinus males transfer a spiral,gelatinous spermatophore to the female: sperm are released intothe female's spermatheca for storage, while the remainder ofthe spermatophore disintegrates within a specialized gland.Radiolabelling studies indicate that male-derived protein isused to help provision the female's developing oocytes, andmultiply-mated females show increased fecundity. As most Photinusadults do not feed, these studies suggest that females shouldcontinue to forage for matings to supplement their diminishinglarval reserves, even after they have gained sufficient spermto fertilize their eggs. Male spermatophore mass declines acrosssequential matings, and smaller spermatophores are associatedwith lower paternity success in situations where males competefor fertilizations. Declining spermatophore size across sequentialmatings may thus lead to diminishing reproductive returns forfirefly males. Taken together, these results suggest that seasonalchanges in nuptial gift availability may contribute to reversalsof traditional courtship roles, with male choice and female-femalecompetition occurring as spermatophore availability declines.  相似文献   

11.
North American Photinus fireflies use bioluminescent flashes to communicate an individual’s species and sex, and to attract potential mates. A female firefly responds to a male firefly’s courtship flash with her own species-specific flash. We used a photic stimulator to produce male-like species-specific P. carolinus LED courtship flashes. These evoked species-specific response flashes from a female. The female’s flashes were preceded by a flash gesture comprising a sequence of abdominal postural adjustments (pitch, roll, and yaw). These gestures changed her lantern’s orientation which, at rest, was downward towards the substrate. Our results demonstrate that these gestures mediate a lateralization of the female’s response flashes towards the direction of the stimulating LED. That is, she directs her response to the left of midline when stimuli are presented from her left, and similarly, she directs her response to the right of midline when stimuli are presented from her right. The directional aspect of the flash gesture adds a new perspective to the complexity of the behaviors associated with flash communication in fireflies. Lateralization of the flash gesture suggests that the female’s visual system processes information about the location of male’s flashes as well as their temporal pattern.  相似文献   

12.
Differences in male mating success can generate selection on male morphological traits and courtship behaviors involved in male–male competition or female mate choice. In Photinus fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae), courtship is based on bioluminescent flash signals produced by both sexes. We conducted field observations of Photinus greeni fireflies engaged in competitive courtships, in which females are able to simultaneously assess several males, to identify male morphological traits and courtship behaviors that might predict male mating success. Male morphological traits did not differ between males that successfully mated compared with unsuccessful males (dialoging males that did not mate). However, courtship behavioral interactions differed: successful males tended to have higher flash pattern rates (number of flash patterns per minute), and their courtship flashes were more likely to be answered by females. We also examined how the risk of predation by Photuris fireflies altered courtship behavior of their Photinus prey. When predatory Photuris fireflies were present, P. greeni females were less likely to mate, and showed decreased flash responses to most males. However, P. greeni males that did successfully mate in spite of Photuris presence were males that maintained high flash pattern rates that elicited female responses. These results suggest that both female mate choice and Photuris predation exert strong selective pressures on the evolution of courtship signals in Photinus fireflies.  相似文献   

13.
Synchronous flashing occurs in certain species of SoutheastAsian and North American fireflies. Most Southeast Asian synchronyinvolves stationary congregating fireflies, but North Americansynchrony occurs in flying fireflies that do not congregate.Southeast Asian synchrony is usually continuous, but North Americansynchrony is interrupted. Photuris frontalis, the only memberof the North American genus Photuris to synchronize, shows anintermittent synchrony. This involves synchronization and repeatedre-synchronizations while in flight. The precision that occursat the start of synchrony was studied in Ph. frontalis usingcaged fireflies and photometry. Barrier experiments (using twofireflies) or flash entrainment experiments (using one LED andone firefly) were performed to measure the temporal precisionof the first entrained flash. In both cases, the first entrainedflash was close to unison synchrony (phase = 1.0) and showedlittle variability. The behavioral implications of the abilityto synchronize with the first entrained flash are not known,but it might facilitate male-male interactions during brief,transient encounters such as maintaining distance between closelyflying males in search of females.  相似文献   

14.
In species where males and females interact during mating, the role of females in sexual selection cannot always be demonstrated unambiguously. Here we present a model system to study female choice for mates. Orchesella cinca is a soil-dwelling hexapod with indirect sperm transfer. Females and males do not interact physically for reproduction. We gave females the choice between spermatophores produced by two different males. Paternity analysis based on microsatellite variation revealed that offspring in one clutch were sired by one male only. Direct observations showed that after a female has taken up a spermatophore, the female's receptivity to further spermatophore uptake seem to end. Our results imply that the female is in full control of paternity.  相似文献   

15.
Ever since Darwin identified it as the force responsible forthe evolution of exaggerated male characters, sexual selectionhas been the focus of research aimed at understanding the mostbizarre and intriguing morphologies and behaviors in Nature.Two congeneric species in the firefly genus Photinus, P. pyralisand P. macdermotti, afford a unique opportunity to examine theinteraction between sexual and countervailing natural selectionthat act to shape the evolution of mating behavior and bodysize in closely related species with very different courtshipstrategies. Photinus pyralis males emit very bright flashesduring their extended patrolling flights and form ‘loveknots’ of competing suitors, while P. macdermotti males,whose courtships seldom exceed two competing males, produceweaker flashes during a shorter patrolling period. Possibly as a consequence of their scramble competition andlong flights, not only is there an extremely wide range of bodysizes in P. pyralis males, but they also exhibit wing allometricslopes greater than one, and lantern allometries less than one.In contrast, P. macdermotti males do not have allometric slopessignificantly different from one. Small males, when tested inan artificial scramble situation move faster than large males,an advantage in the intense competition that ensues once a femaleis located. Females answer several males in alternation andfail to respond to all male flashes, with the evident consequencethat love knots frequently develop around such fickle females.Allometric relationships in two non-luminescent beetle specieswith non-visual courtship protocols are compared. Visual, sexuallyselected characters showed positive allometric slopes, whilenon-visual characters showed isometry or negative slopes. Datapresented here support the existence of distinct patterns inmodality-specific sexual selection.  相似文献   

16.
Sexual communication in most species of fireflies is a male–female dialogue of precisely timed flashes of bioluminescent light. The biochemical reactions underlying firefly bioluminescence have been known for 30 years and are now exploited in biomedical assays and other commercial applications. Several aspects of flash regulation are also understood: flash rhythm is controlled by a central pattern generator, and individual flashes are neurally triggered, with octopamine serving as the transmitter. The molecular oxygen needed by the biochemical reactants is delivered by a network of tracheal arborizations extending throughout the light organ (lantern). However, the actual means by which oxygen quickly reaches the reactants packaged within specialized photocytes and the specific event(s) triggered by neural action have not been identified; termination of axons away from the photocytes has exacerbated the latter problem. A recent paper( 1 ) by a consortium of cell and evolutionary biologists, however, reports that nitric oxide (NO), manufactured and released in response to neuronal discharge, is the missing link by which neural action in the firefly lantern yields a sudden flash of light. BioEssays 23:992–995, 2001. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.  相似文献   

17.
Uninterrupted copula durations between virgin male and virgin female in the sulfur butterflyColias erate successfully lasted about 45 min in the greenhouse. Without harassment, the copula duration of virgin females with wild young males was similar to that in the greenhouse. The male structured a spermatophore about 40 min after copula initiation. Young males ejaculated bigger spermatophores than old males, while age did not influence copula duration. The mating behaviors of the wild males and the tethered females were observed and the copula duration was recorded. All copulating pairs were harassed by single males in the field, and the copula duration was increased, though there was no difference in spermatophore size. Single males harassed pairs with old males significantly longer duration than pairs with young males. Severe harassment elicited no particular response by the pairs. There was a successful mating takeover by a single male. Females tended to be more likely to re-mate when they had fewer spermatophores in the bursa copulatrix. The females that accepted re-mating retained smaller ejaculates in the bursa copulatrix than those that refused re-mating. Lone males seemed to be able to discriminate old and young males in copula. The harassment of pair with old males might be advantageous for single males to increase mating success.  相似文献   

18.
Females of the scorpionfly Hylobittacus apicalis choose mateson the basis of material benefits (nuptial arthropod prey size)and probably on the basis of genetic benefits males deliverat mating. Females feed on the male's prey throughout copulation.They prefer males with large prey as mates and often refusemales who present small prey. That females may value male geneticquality is suggested by differences in ability of males to obtainlarge prey, which if inherited would influence offspring fitness,and by females often terminating mating with males with smallprey before they transfer any sperm or a complete ejaculate.Females hunt only when males with prey are not available becausehunting exposes individuals to predators. Female Hylobittacusapicalis exhibit alternative mate choice tactics, which arecondition-dependent in expression and probably comprise a conditionalstrategy. Body size, recent feeding history, and male availabilitydetermine how discriminating an individual female actually is,and these conditions may determine the value of material andgenetic benefits in mate choice decisions. The results suggestthat female choice controls male behavior. When females becomechoosy, males are forced to obtain rare large prey despite theincreased risks to males associated with this behavior. The implications of the findings on H. apicalis are discussedin relation to condition dependent female choice patterns inother species and the evolutionary maintenance of female choice.  相似文献   

19.
A study of the effects of photic stimulation on the abilityto induce flash luminescence in the female Photuris fireflyby electrical brain stimulation was made. Pulses of light deliveredto the eye of the firefly aie not only able to inhibit spontaneousflashing but also reduce the ability of electrical biain stimulito induce firefly flashes. Inhibition by photic pulses is mosteffective when the pulses are delivered approximately 300–400msec prior to brain stimulation. Only flashes of biain stimulus—flashonset latency greater than 120 msec can be inhibited in thisfashion, while driven flashes of 90 msec were immune from theinhibitory effect. It is suggested that the inhibilory effectsof photic stimulation provide some physiological explaintionof the male-female response latency found in the courting fireflies.  相似文献   

20.
The very different courtship flashes of Photuris versicolorand Photuris lucicrescens males mirror the pattern of neuralimpulses produced by their brain. Their lanterns luminescencevery differently, however, in response to direct, electricalstimulation. Whereas P. lucicrescens lanterns glow in responseto high frequency, continuous electrical stimulation, thoseof P. versicolor produce only rapid, triple-pulsed flashlettesthat resemble, but are not identical to, their courtship flashes.In addition, the exposed lantern tissue of P. versicolor males,when immersed in firefly saline high in potassium and calciumions, scintillates with hundreds of photocytes flashing in randomfashion. P. lucicrescens male lanterns, so treated, only glow.Tests of P. versicolor lanterns with salines of different compositionsuggest that calcium ions are essential in producing this intense,long lasting scintillation response and are therefore possiblyimplicated in the final stages of flash control in this species.  相似文献   

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