Bioactivity of two major constituents isolated from the essential oil of Artemisia judaica L

The essential oil of Artemisia judaica L., grown on Sinai Peninsula of Egypt, was extracted via hydrodistillation. Chromatographic separation on repeated silica gel columns led to isolate two compounds namely piperitone and trans-ethyl cinnamate. Insecticidal, antifeedant and antifungal properties of the isolated compounds were examined. Both compounds showed pronounced insecticidal and antifeedant activity against the third instar larvae of Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd). trans-Ethyl cinnamate (LD₅₀ = 0.37 μg/larva) was more toxic than piperitone (LD₅₀ = 0.68 μg/larva). The two isolated compounds revealed antifeedant activity in a concentration dependent manner, with complete feeding inhibition at a concentration of 1000 μg/ml. When tested for antifungal activity against four plant pathogenic fungi, the isolated compounds exhibited a moderate to high activity.     

Effect of a nuclepolyhedrovirus of Autographa californica expressing the enhancin gene of Trichoplusia ni granulovirus on T. ni larvae

A recombinant Autographa californica nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) strain showing higher virulence against Trichoplusia ni larvae than the wild-type virus was developed. The 'enhancin' (VEF) gene of T. ni granulovirus (TnGV) and the AcMNPV polyhedrin gene were cloned into the baculovirus transfer vector pAcUW31. This plasmid and AcMNPV BacPAK6 DNA were co-transfected into the BTI-Tn5B1-4 cell line. A recombinant AcMNPV strain (BacVEFPol) was purified, amplified, and bioassayed against T. ni first instar larvae. Its estimated LC₅₀ (0.184 OB/mm²) was 2.18 times lower than the LC₅₀ estimated for the wild-type AcMNPV (0.402 OB/mm²). Likewise, an LT₅₀ of 67.7 h was estimated for the recombinant AcMNPV strain while the LT₅₀ of wild-type AcMNPV was estimated at 81.9 h. This indicates a 17.4% reduction of the time required to kill the larvae. The higher virulence of the recombinant strain, evidenced by its LC₅₀ and LT₅₀ values being lower than those of the wild-type strain, indicates that the VEF protein is expressed properly and may be occluded in the OBs.     

The effect of in vivo heat treatments on blowfly flight muscle mitochondrial function: Effects on partial reactions of the respiratory chain

1. 1. The development of thermotolerance has been shown to protect blowfly flight muscle mitochondrial function from damage resulting from an LD₅₀ in vivo heat dose.

2. 2. The principal sites of the damage have been studied using specific inhibitors of the respiratory chain, rotenone and antimycin A, together with substrates that stimulate respiration through the different complexes.

3. 3. Complex I was identified as the primary site for heat damage. State III respiration was inhibited following the LD₅₀ in vivo heat dose, and uncoupling with FCCP did not restore respiration to control levels, indicating that the respiratory enzymes were inactivated. The development of thermotolerance protected this site from heat damage.

4. 4. In contrast, G3-P stimulated respiration was the same in control, LD₅₀ in vivo treated controls and LD₅₀, in vivo treated thermotolerant mitochondria, and significantly higher than state III respiration of LD₅₀ in vivo treated controls. This suggested that respiration through G3-P dehydrogenase, Co enzyme Q and Complex III is not damaged. However, as G3-P stimulated respiration of coupled mitochondria from LD₅₀ in-vivo treated flies was markedly reduced (El-Wadawi and Bowler, 1995. J. exp. Biol. 198: 2413–2421), phosphorylation at complex III may be inhibited also.

5. 5. Ferrocyanide stimulated respiration through cytochrome c-Complex IV was also inhibited in LD₅₀ in vivo treated flies, as compared with unheated control mitochondria. However, thermotolerance protected this site also from heat damage.

     

In vitro antiplasmodial activity of extract and constituents from Esenbeckia febrifuga, a plant traditionally used to treat malaria in the Brazilian Amazon

Esenbeckia febrifuga (Rutaceae) is a plant traditionally used to treat malaria in the Brazilian Amazon region. Ethanol extract of stems displayed a good antiplasmodial activity against Plasmodium falciparum strains W-2 (IC₅₀ 15.5±0.71 μg/ml) and 3 D7 (IC₅₀ 21.0±1.4 μg/ml). Two coumarins (bergaptene 1 and isopimpinellin 2), five alkaloids (flindersiamine 3, kokusaginine 4, skimmiamine 5, γ-fagarine 6 and 1-hydroxy-3-methoxy-N-methylacridone, 7), besides a limonoid (rutaevine 8), have been isolated for the first time from this species. Antiplasmodial activity of compounds 3, 5–8 has been evaluated in vitro against P. falciparum strains (W-2 and 3D7) and the furoquinolines 5 and 6 were the most potent displaying IC₅₀ values <50 μg/ml; flindersiamine (3) showed a weak activity while alkaloid 7 and rutaevine (8) were inactive (IC₅₀>100 μg/ml).     

The pharmaceutical exploration of cold water ascidians from the Netherlands: a possible source of new cytotoxic natural products

Six ascidian species from the Dutch North Sea coast were screened for cytotoxic activity. Freeze-dried biological material was extracted with solvents of different polarity followed by determination of the cytotoxicity. The most active extracts were further separated using different chromatographic techniques. The microculture tetrazolium (MTT) assay was used to determine the cytotoxicity against two human tumor cell lines: COLO₃₂₀ (a colon adenocarcinoma) and GLC₄ (a small cell lung carcinoma). The two cell lines were selected for their different response towards known cytostatics. GLC₄ is sensitive and COLO₃₂₀ is resistant to most of the known cytostatics. Three of the species tested yielded interesting fractions. From the in colonial Didemnum lahillei we have isolated a compound which is more active against the COLO₃₂₀ cell line (IC₅₀:33 μg ml⁻¹) than the GLC₄ (IC₅₀:49 μg ml⁻¹). The structure is currently elucidated. Another colonial species, Aplidium glabrum, yielded a very cytotoxic fraction, with an IC₅₀ of 5 μg ml⁻¹ against the COLO₃₂₀ cell line. From our results it can be concluded that the North Sea could be another interesting source of new compounds with pharmaceutical potential.     

Ergosterol peroxides as phospholipase A2 inhibitors from the fungus Lactarius hatsudake

Four ergosterol derivatives (1–4) have been isolated for the first time from the fruiting bodies of a basidiomycete fungus, Lactarius hatsudake, through activity-guided fractionation. Their structures were determined, using spectroscopic analysis, as: (22E,24R)-ergosta-5,7,22-dien-3β-ol (ergosterol, 1); 5,8-epidioxy-(22E,24R)-ergosta-6,22-dien-3β-ol (ergosterol peroxide, 2); 5,8-epidioxy-(24S)-ergosta-6-en-3β-ol (3); and (22E,24R)-ergosta-7,22-dien-3β,5,6β-triol (cerevisterol, 4). Compounds 2 and 3 showed selective inhibitory activity against Crotalus adamenteus venom phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂) enzyme, but not against Apis mellifcra bee venom PLA₂. The antiphospholipase A₂ activity of compounds 2 and 3 are reported here for the first time.     

Modification at the C9 position of the marine natural product isoaaptamine and the impact on HIV-1, mycobacterial, and tumor cell activity

As part of an investigation to generate optimized drug leads from marine natural pharmacophores for the treatment of neoplastic and infectious diseases, a series of novel isoaaptamine analogs were prepared by coupling acyl halides to the C9 position of isoaaptamine (2) isolated from the Aaptos sponge. This library of new semisynthetic products was evaluated for biological activity against HIV-1, Mtb, AIDS-OI, tropical parasitic diseases, and cancer. Compound 4 showed potent activity against HIV-1 (EC₅₀ 0.47 μg/mL), compound 19 proved to possess remarkable activity against Mycobacterium intracellulare with an IC₅₀ and MIC value of 0.15 and 0.31 μg/mL, while compounds 4 and 17 possessed anti-leishmanial activity with IC₅₀ values of 0.1 and 0.4 μg/mL, respectively. Compounds 16 and 17 showed antimalarial activity with EC₅₀ values of 230 and 240 ng/mL, respectively, and compound 14 exhibited an EC₅₀ of 0.05 μM against the Leukemia cell line K-562.     

7株野生虫草菌的鉴定及其菌丝体醇提取物对HepG2细胞的抑制活性

结合形态学与ITS序列分析对7株野生虫草真菌进行分类鉴定。MTT法分析它们的菌丝体醇提取物对肝癌HepG2细胞增殖的抑制活性。鉴定结果表明菌株MF7、MF9、MF14为细脚棒束孢Isaria tenuipes,菌株MF11、MF12、MF13为蝉棒束孢Isaria cicadae,菌株MF10为球孢白僵菌Beauveria bassiana;MTT结果显示分离到的3株细脚棒束孢和3株蝉棒束孢的菌丝体醇提取物对HepG2的抑制活性较差,IC₅₀均大于500μg/mL;球孢白僵菌MF10对HepG2细胞有一定抑制作用,IC₅₀值为221.6μg/mL,略强于蝙蝠蛾拟青霉发酵菌丝粉产品金水宝胶囊（IC₅₀=364μg/mL）和中华被毛孢发酵菌丝粉产品百令胶囊（IC₅₀=268.7μg/mL）。另外,发现供对比试验的3株蛹虫草菌株（MF1、MF5、MF15）对HepG2细胞均有较好的抑制作用,其中MF15的发酵菌丝体醇提取物活性最强,IC₅₀为55.56μg/mL,暗示蛹虫草发酵菌丝体具有重要的研究价值。     

Crystallographic and NMR studies of antiinfective tricyclic guanidine alkaloids from the sponge Monanchora unguifera

Three tricyclic guanidine alkaloids, including 1,8a;8b,3a-didehydro-8β-hydroxyptilocaulin (1), 1,8a;8b,3a-didehydro-8-hydroxyptilocaulin (2) and mirabilin B (3), were identified from the marine sponge Monanchora unguifera. 1,8a;8b,3a-Didehydro-8-hydroxyptilocaulin (2) is a new stereoisomer of 1, the structure of which was elucidated by spectroscopic analysis, comparison of its spectral data with those of 1, and confirmed by X-ray analysis. Compounds 1 and 2 co-crystallized in an unusual perfect order and packed around an approximate inversion center. A mixture of 1 and 2 is active against the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum with an IC₅₀ value of 3.8 μg/mL while mirabilin B (3) exhibited antifungal activity against Cryptococcus neoformans with an IC₅₀ value of 7.0 μg/mL and antiprotozoal activity against Leishmania donovani with an IC₅₀ value of 17 μg/mL.     

Inhibition of protein phosphatases-1 and -2A with acanthifolicin: Comparison with diarrhetic shellfish toxins and identification of a region on okadaic acid important for phosphatase inhibition

Acanthifolicin (9,10-epithio-okadaic acid from Pandoras acanthifolium) inhibited protein phosphatase-1 (PP1) similarly to okadaic acid (IC₅₀ = 20 nM and 19 nM, respectively) but was slightly less active against protein phosphatase-2A (PP2A) (IC₅₀ 1 nM and 0.2 nM, respectively). Methyl esterification of acanthifolicin sharply reduced its activity. PP2A was inhibited with an IC₅₀ = 5.0 μM, whilst PP1 was inhibited < 10% at 250 μM toxin. Okadaic acid methyl ester was similarly inactive whereas dinophysistoxin-1 (35-methyl okadaic acid) inhibited PP1/2A almost as potently as okadaic acid. Pure acanthifolicin/okadaic acid methyl ester may be useful as specific inhibitors of PP2A at 1–10 μM concentrations in vitro and perhaps in vivo. The data also indicate that a region on these toxins important for PP1/2A inhibition comprises the single carboxyl group.     

乙基多杀菌素和联苯肼酯对地熊蜂的毒性及风险评估

【目的】明确乙基多杀菌素和联苯肼酯对地熊蜂Bombus terrestris的毒性, 探讨这两种农药亚致死浓度对地熊蜂体内乙酰胆碱酯酶(AchE)、谷胱甘肽-S-转移酶(GST)和羧酸酯酶(CarE) 3种解毒酶活性的影响。【方法】采用饲喂法测定60 g a.i./L乙基多杀菌素和43%联苯肼酯对地熊蜂采集蜂的急性经口毒性,依据农药对蜜蜂生态风险的危害熵(hazard quotient, HQ)值评估这两种农药对地熊蜂的风险。同时测定了这两种农药亚致死剂量(LD₅₀和LD₈₀)处理后地熊蜂AchE, GST和CarE的活性变化。【结果】60 g a.i./L乙基多杀菌素和43%联苯肼酯对地熊蜂采集蜂的急性经口毒性测定48 h时LD₅₀值分别为3.590和1 447 μg a.i./蜂,其中60 g a.i./L乙基多杀菌素表现为中毒,43%联苯肼酯表现为低毒。两种农药对地熊蜂采集蜂的HQ值均低于50,表现为低风险。LD₅₀和LD₈₀剂量的乙基多杀菌素处理组与对照组相比,3 h时地熊蜂AchE活性被激活,显著高于对照组(P＜0.05),分别为对照组的1.45和1.23倍,24 h后活性受到抑制,两个剂量处理组AchE活性均显著低于对照组(P＜0.05);CarE活性3 h时同样被激活,显著高于对照组(P＜0.05),LD₅₀和LD₈₀剂量处理组CarE活性分别为对照组的1.24和1.53倍, 24 h后活性受到抑制,其中LD₅₀剂量处理组CarE活性显著低于对照组(P＜0.05),LD₈₀剂量处理组CarE活性与对照组差异不显著(P＞0.05);LD₅₀和LD₈₀剂量处理组GST活性3 h被激活,显著高于对照组(P＜0.05),分别为对照组的2.24和2.58倍,24 h后活性降低,但两个剂量处理组GST活性仍显著高于对照组(P＜0.05)。43%联苯肼酯处理后,与对照组相比3 h时LD₅₀和LD₈₀剂量处理组AchE活性与对照组差异不显著(P＞0.05),24 h后AchE活性降低,显著低于对照组(P＜0.05),分别是对照组的75%和80%;CarE活性3 h时被抑制,LD₅₀剂量处理组CarE活性显著低于对照组(P＜0.05),LD₈₀剂量处理组CarE活性低于对照组,但差异不显著(P＞0.05),24 h后CarE活性被激活,其中LD₅₀剂量处理组CarE活性高于对照组,但差异不显著(P＞0.05),LD₈₀剂量处理组CarE活性显著高于对照组(P＜0.05);LD₅₀剂量处理组GST活性3 h时被激活,显著高于对照组(P＜0.05),24 h后活性降低,但仍显著高于对照组(P＜0.05),3 h和24 h的活性分别为对照组的2.04和1.72倍,LD₈₀剂量处理组3 h的GST活性与对照组无显著差异(P＞0.05),24 h后活性降低,显著低于对照组(P＜0.05)。【结论】乙基多杀菌素和联苯肼酯对地熊蜂的HQ 评估均表现为低风险,其中联苯肼酯对地熊蜂的安全性较高,在熊蜂授粉过程中可以按照推荐剂量应用,但过量施用或者长期施用可能会造成熊蜂体内药剂积累引起生理或者行为的变化,乙基多杀菌素在温室及大田授粉期的使用剂量和方法有待进一步研究。     

Effects of reduced salinities on development and bioenergetics of early larval shore crab, Carcinus maenas

The shore crab, Carcinus maenas L. (Portunidae), is a coastal and estuarine species, which can live and reproduce under brackish water conditions; freshly hatched larvae have been observed in the field at salinities below 15‰. In the present laboratory study, the tolerance of hypo-osmotic stress was experimentally investigated in early larvae of a marine (North Sea) population of C. maenas reared at four different salinities (15, 20, 25, 32‰). Two and 4 days after hatching, the Zoea I larvae were moult-staged microscopically, and their rates of respiration and growth (changes in dry weight, W, carbon, C, nitrogen, N, and hydrogen, H) were measured. Survival and development were monitored until the megalopa was reached: 15‰ did not allow for development beyond the first zoeal stage, while metamorphosis to the megalopa was reached at salinities ≥20‰. At 20‰, development was significantly delayed and mortality enhanced as compared with 25 and 32‰. Rates of growth and respiration decreased during exposure to reduced salinities ≤25‰. Hence, the suppression of growth could not be explained as a consequence of enhanced metabolic losses per larva. Instead, a partial C budget indicates that the Zoea I larvae suffered from decreased capabilities of assimilating ingested and subsequently converting assimilated matter to tissue growth. Net growth efficiency (K₂, C-based) was at 25 and 32‰ initially high (>60% during the postmoult and intermoult stages of the Zoea I moult cycle), but decreased during the later stages (down to ≤30% in premoult). An inverse pattern of C partitioning was observed at ≤20‰, with initially low K₂ values (≤21% during the first 2 days of the moult cycle), and a later increase (up to ≥46% in premoult). Thus, larval growth was initially suppressed under conditions of reduced salinity, but this was later (during premoult) partially compensated for by an increase in C assimilation and K₂. Our observations indicate that Zoea I shore crab larvae react during the late stages of their moulting cycle less sensitively against reduced salinities than during postmoult and intermoult. This suggests that the transition between moult cycle stages C and D₀ may be a critical point for effects of hypo-osmotic stress, similarly as already known in relation to effects of nutritional stress. Negative effects were found also when freshly hatched Zoea I shore crab larvae were exposed only transitorily (for 24–72 h) to 20‰, with significantly lower rates of survival, development, growth, respiration, and K₂. These effects increased with increasing duration of initial exposure to reduced salinity.     

Extended plant protection by an epiphytic Pseudomonas sp. derivative carrying the cry9Aa gene from Bacillus thuringiensis galleriae against the pine processionary moth Thaumetopoea pityocampa

A strain of Pseudomonas sp. isolated from the phyllosphere of Pinus nigra in northern Italy was used for the introduction and high expression level of the gene encoding the Cry9Aa entomocidal toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis spp. galleriae. Laboratory tests showed that the resulting bacterial construct was more efficacious in terms of LC₅₀ when compared to the purified toxin alone, against the first instar larvae of the pine processionary moth (Thaumetopoea pityocampa), suggesting that the encapsulation of the toxin within the bacterial cell may prevent the degradation of the protein. When the efficacy of the strain was compared in a long-term greenhouse experiment (102 days) with that of a commercial preparation of Btk (Foray 48B), the latter was superior in terms of total mortality, but its effectiveness decreased with time at a faster rate than that of the cry9Aa-Pseudomonas. Overall data indicate that the expression of Bt toxins in heterologous epiphytic bacteria offers potential for more efficient and persistent delivery of toxins to the target insect pests.     

Anti-proliferative lichen compounds with inhibitory activity on 12(S)-HETE production in human platelets

Several lichen compounds, i.e. lobaric acid (1), a β-orcinol depsidone from Stereocaulon alpinum L., (+)-protolichesterinic acid (2), an aliphatic -methylene-γ-lactone from Cetraria islandica Laur. (Parmeliaceae), (+)-usnic acid (3), a dibenzofuran from Cladonia arbuscula (Wallr.) Rabenh. (Cladoniaceae), parietin (4), an anthraquinone from Xanthoria elegans (Link) Th. Fr. (Calaplacaceae) and baeomycesic acid (5), a β-orcinol depside isolated from Thamnolia vermicularis (Sw.) Schaer. var. subuliformis (Ehrh.) Schaer. were tested for inhibitory activity on platelet-type 12(S)-lipoxygenase using a cell-based in vitro system in human platelets. Lobaric acid (1) and (+)-protolichesterinic acid (2) proved to be pronounced inhibitors of platelet-type 12(S)-lipoxygenase, whereas baeomycesic acid (5) showed only weak activity (inhibitory activity at a concentration of 100 μg/ml: 1 93.4±6.62%, 2 98,5±1.19%, 5 14.7±2.76%). Usnic acid (3) and parietin (4) were not active at this concentration. 1 and 2 showed a clear dose–response relationship in the range of 3.33–100 μg/ml. According to the calculated IC₅₀ values the highest inhibitory activity was observed for the depsidone 1 (IC₅₀=28.5 μM) followed by 2 (IC₅₀=77.0 μM). The activity of 1 was comparable to that of the flavone baicalein, which is known as a selective 12(S)-lipoxygenase inhibitor (IC₅₀=24.6 μM).     

Synthesis, spectral studies and in vitro assessment for antiamoebic activity of new cyclooctadiene ruthenium(II) complexes with 5-nitrothiophene-2-carboxaldehyde thiosemicarbazones

We report here the synthesis, characterization and in vitro antiamoebic activity of 5-nitrothiophene-2-carboxaldehyde thiosemicarbazones (TSC), 1–5, and their bidentate complexes [Ru(η⁴-C₈H₁₂)(TSC)Cl₂] 1a–5a. The biological studies of these compounds were investigated against HK-9 strain of Entamoeba histolytica and the concentration causing 50% cell growth inhibition (IC₅₀) was calculated in the micromolar range. The ligands exhibited antiamoebic activity in the range (2.05–5.29 μM). Screening results indicated that the potencies of the compounds increased by the incorporation of ruthenium(II) in the thiosemicarbazones. The complexes 1a–5a showed antiamoebic activity with an IC₅₀ of 0.61–1.43 μM and were better inhibitors of growth of E. histolytica, based on IC₅₀ values. The most promising among them is Ru(II) complex 2a having 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinoline as N⁴ substitution.     

Bioactive metabolites from the endophytic fungus Ampelomyces sp. isolated from the medicinal plant Urospermum picroides

Extracts of cultures grown in liquid or on solid rice media of the fungal endophyte Ampelomyces sp. isolated from the medicinal plant Urospermum picroides exhibited considerable cytotoxic activity when tested in vitro against L5178Y cells. Chromatographic separation yielded 14 natural products that were unequivocally identified based on their ¹H and ¹³C NMR as well as mass spectra and comparison with previously published data. Six compounds (2, 4, 5, 7, 9 and 11) were natural products. Both fungal extracts differed considerably in their secondary metabolites. The extract obtained from liquid cultures afforded a pyrone (2) and sulfated anthraquinones (7 and 9) along with the known compounds 1, 3, 6 and 8. When grown on solid rice medium the fungus yielded three compounds 4, 5 and 11 in addition to several known metabolites including 6, 8, 10, 12, 13 and 14. Compounds 4, 8 and 10 showed the strongest cytotoxic activity against L5178Y cells with EC₅₀ values ranging from 0.2–7.3 μg/ml. Furthermore, 8 and 10 displayed antimicrobial activity against the Gram-positive pathogens, Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis and Enterococcus faecalis at minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of 12.5 μg/ml and 12.5–25 μg/ml, respectively. Interestingly, 6 and 8 were also identified as constituents of an extract derived from a healthy plant sample of the host plant U. picroides thereby indicating that the production of bioactive natural products by the endophyte proceeds also under in situ conditions within the host plant.     

盐穗木金属硫蛋白HcMT的体外自由基清除活性及抗氧化能力*

目的: 原核表达盐穗木(Halostachys caspica C. A. Mey.)金属硫蛋白HcMT并探究其抗氧化活性。方法: 构建原核表达载体pET-32a-HcMT,转化至大肠杆菌Escherichia coli BL21,加入Zn²⁺胁迫培养(终浓度为200 μmol/L),分离纯化得到Zn-HcMT,测定Zn-HcMT自由基清除活性和总抗氧化能力,制备复合物Zn-HcMT/TiO₂并做FTIR表征。结果: 通过原核表达获得融合蛋白Zn-HcMT,对·OH、O₂·^-、DPPH自由基具有较强的清除活性,对·OH、O₂·^-的IC₅₀分别为0.386 mg/mL、0.038 mg/mL。融合蛋白浓度为0.01 mg/mL时,对DPPH清除率达(37.43 ± 0.006 8)%,浓度为0.3mg/mL时TEAC(trolox-equivalent antioxidant capacity)值为(1.023 ± 0.01)mmol/L,融合蛋白还原力A₇₀₀为0.142 ± 0.055,FTIR图谱同时表现了Zn-HcMT和TiO₂吸收特性。结论: Zn-HcMT具有良好的清除ROS活性及较强的抗氧化能力,在化妆品领域有潜在应用前景。     

Thermal responses and temperature tolerance of a dessert ant-lion larva

1. 1.Cueta trivirgata larvae construct pits in the dry Kuiseb River bed in the Namib Desert.

2. 2.An art, Ocymyrmex robustior comprises 65.4% of the biomass of prey consumed by the ant-lions.

3. 3.O. robustior is active between surface temperatures of 27–68°C.

4. 4.Ant-lions tolerate high body temperatures (LD₅₀ = 53.4°C).

5. 5.By exploiting the pit microclimate and by digging below the surface during extreme thermal loads, ant-lions can capture prey at surface temperatures of 13–63°C.

6. 6.These behavioural and physiological adaptations enable ant-lions to maximize the duration of vigilance and hence prey capture success.